Transition from Cosmography to Scientific Geography: Contributions of Bernard Varenius and Immanuel Kant

The Renaissance caused an unprecedented flow of new information coming from the voyages of discovery, inventions and cartographic precision which have greatly revolutionised contemporary geographic scholarship. It has laid the foundation of modern geography of the classical period. 

The geography of the Pre-classical period included both the general (The description of a particular kinds of phenomena on the earth surface) and the special (the description of many kinds of phenomena in a particular area).

In the pre classical period of Geography the tradition of strabo and Ptolemi was carried forward by the then geographers which were descriptive and encyclopaedic in nature. At that time, the description and observations of the universe were included in the geographic description side by side with the natural phenomena and human interaction on the art surface. The information collected by the great explorers helped geographers to prepare more precise descriptions about different areas and locations on the Earth surface. 

Cosmographic Tradition

Though Christian world was much influenced by the scientific discovery of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo but attempts were made by the geographers of the pre classical period to revive the Ptolemaic and Strabo's tradition of ancient Roman geography. 

Peter Apian and Sebastian Munster were two important geographers in the renaissance period, who carried forward the cosmographic tradition of geography put forward by Strabo and Ptolemy in the ancient Roman period. Their contribution controlled the geographic enquiries in the next 100 years: one is the astronomy and mathematical geography and the descriptive geography of Strabo. 

Peter Apian was an astronomer and cartographer who contributed in astronomy, geometry and cartography which are still relevant to geography. He believed in the geocentric universe of Ptolemy and he recognised the aristotelian concept of ekumen and zone of habitability. 

Sebastian Munster was the follower of the tradition of Cosmogeography. His work “Cosmographia Universalis” was the compilation of many contemporary inventories about the human world on different parts of the Earth surface and it very much follows the geographic tradition of Strabo and it almost excludes mathematical and physical Geography. He also believed in the geocentric universe of Ptolemy. 

His book also deals with the dispersal of mankind over the earth after the great flood. Eid provides us with a human and political geography of Germany on a chronological basis. Last part of the book deals with Asia, Europe and Africa. 

Beginning of scientific geography

The classical Roman tradition of Strabo and Ptolemy, which was carried forward by geographers in the pre classical period by Apian and Munster, disappeared gradually with the beginning of scientific Geography in the early 17th century through the work of Varenius,  Kant, Humboldt and Ritter. The transition from cosmography to scientific geography marked a significant development in the history of geographic studies. Before the emergence of scientific geography, the study of the universe as a whole, known as cosmography, dominated geographic research. However, the development of scientific methodology and the growing interest in empirical observation led to the emergence of scientific geography as a separate field of study. Two key figures in this transition were Bernard Varenius and Immanuel Kant.

Bernard Varenius, a Dutch geographer and theologian, is widely regarded as the father of modern scientific geography. In his seminal work, "Geographia Generalis," published in 1650, Varenius introduced the concept of geography as a science. He emphasized the importance of empirical observation, systematic classification, and the use of mathematical methods in the study of geography.

Varenius's work was influenced by the broader scientific and philosophical trends of his time. During the 17th century, there was a growing interest in empirical observation and the use of mathematical methods in scientific research. Varenius applied these methods to the study of geography, arguing that geography should be based on empirical observation rather than abstract speculation.

Varenius also introduced the concept of regional geography, which divided the world into distinct regions based on their physical and cultural characteristics. This approach allowed geographers to study specific regions in depth and to understand how the natural and human environment interacted to shape the landscape and the people who lived there.

Varenius first divided Geography enquiry into two parts:

1. General geography
2. Special geography

Believed that the methods of the natural sciences could be successfully used to draw conclusions with a large measure of scientific precision for the treatment of natural phenomena like climate, geology and landforms. But these methods could not successfully be applied to treat the social and cultural phenomena. 

He was one of the first Geographers who pointed out the differences between human geography and physical Geography.

Physical components focus on the surface of the Earth where it examines climate, landforms, water, forests and deserts, minerals, animals and human habitats. Human components of a place include description of the inhabitants, their appearances, arts, commerce, culture, language, government, religion, cities, famous places and famous men. 

His best work "Geographia Generalis" was a standard textbook for more than a century to geographers. It is divided into 3 parts: 

• The absolute or terrestrial section which describes the shape and size of the Earth and the physical geography of continents, seas and the atmosphere. 
• The relative or cosmic section which treats of the relation between the earth and other heavenly bodies specially Sun and its influence on world climate, and
• The comparative section which deals with the location of different places in relation to each other and the principles of navigation. 

In special geography he asserted that descriptions of particular places should be based upon-

• Celebrated conditions, including climate and climatic zones
• Terrestrial conditions which describes the relief vegetation and animal life,
• Human conditions including trade settlement and forms of government in each country. 

Varenius recognised the idea of the heliocentric universe of Copernicus Kepler and Galileo. He pointed out the differences in the amount of heat received from the sun in equatorial regions as compared to higher latitude.

Here are some points on the contribution of Varenius in Geography;

• Systematic Classification and Mathematical Methods: Varenius believed that geography should be based on empirical observation rather than abstract speculation. He emphasised the importance of systematic classification and the use of mathematical methods in the study of geography. Varenius's approach to geography was based on the idea that geography was a science, and that scientific methods could be used to study the natural and human environment.
• Regional Geography: Varenius introduced the concept of regional geography, which divided the world into distinct regions based on their physical and cultural characteristics. He argued that this approach allowed geographers to study specific regions in depth and to understand how the natural and human environment interacted to shape the landscape and the people who lived there. This approach is still used today, and regional geography remains an important part of the study of geography.

Chorology: The term is derived from the Greek word "choros," meaning place or space, and "logos," meaning study or discourse.

In essence, chorology is concerned with understanding the patterns of distribution and arrangement of various geographic features, such as landforms, vegetation, climate, human settlements, or cultural artifacts. The goal of chorology is to identify and analyze the relationships between these features, as well as their spatial and temporal variations.

Chorology is closely related to regional geography, as it often involves the study of specific regions or landscapes. However, chorology is broader in scope, and can encompass the study of geographic patterns at a variety of scales, from the global to the local level.

Chorology has been an important part of geographic research for many years, and has contributed to our understanding of a range of phenomena, from the distribution of plant and animal species to the patterns of settlement and land use. Chorology is also closely related to other fields of study, such as ecology, anthropology, and archaeology, as these fields often rely on spatial analysis to understand the relationships between different aspects of the natural and human environment.

• Human Activity and the Environment: One of Varenius's most significant contributions to scientific geography was his recognition of the role of human activity in shaping the natural environment. He argued that human actions, such as agriculture, mining, and urbanization, had a significant impact on the physical landscape and the distribution of natural resources. This recognition of the interdependence of human society and the natural environment is a central theme in modern geography, and has led to a greater understanding of the impact of human activity on the environment.
• Interdisciplinary Approach: Varenius's work also reflected his broader interest in the relationship between geography and other fields of study, such as theology and natural philosophy. He believed that geography was essential for understanding the complex relationships between humans and their environment and for understanding the wider workings of the universe. This interdisciplinary approach to geography has become increasingly important in recent years, as geographers have sought to understand the complex relationships between humans and their environment from a range of perspectives.

Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher and scientist, also made significant contributions to the development of scientific geography. In his work "Physical Geography," published in 1802, Kant emphasized the importance of empirical observation and the use of mathematical methods in geographic research.

Kant's work reflected his broader philosophical concerns, particularly his interest in the relationship between human beings and the natural world. He argued that human beings were both a part of nature and distinct from it, and that their actions had a significant impact on the environment. This recognition of the human impact on the environment is an important theme in modern geography and has become increasingly relevant in the face of contemporary environmental challenges.

Kant's work also reflected his interest in the relationship between geography and history. He argued that the physical landscape and the distribution of natural resources played a significant role in shaping the course of human history, and that the study of geography was essential for understanding the complexities of human society.

Kant's work on physical geography was groundbreaking in its emphasis on empirical observation and mathematical methods. He argued that geographic research should be based on empirical observation and measurement, rather than abstract speculation. This emphasis on empirical observation and measurement is a central theme in modern geography, and has contributed to the development of a range of scientific methods and techniques for studying the natural and human environment.

Here are some points of Kant’s contribution in the scientific geography:

• Theory of Space and Time: Kant's theory of space and time, as outlined in his "Critique of Pure Reason," laid the foundation for modern conceptions of spatial and temporal relationships. His ideas about the structure of space and time helped to establish a framework for understanding the relationships between geographic features and the environment, and how they changed over time.
• Geographical Classification: Kant proposed a method of geographical classification that took into account both physical and cultural features. He emphasized the importance of studying the physical and cultural characteristics of a region in order to understand the relationship between humans and their environment. His approach to geographical classification is still used today, and is seen as a critical tool in the study of regional geography.
• Geographical Concepts: Kant introduced several key geographical concepts that are still used in the field today. He developed the concept of "geographical chorology," which focused on the study of the distribution of geographic features across a landscape. He also introduced the concept of "geographical locality," which emphasized the importance of studying the specific characteristics of a particular region or location.
• Geographic Methodology: Kant advocated for a rigorous scientific methodology in geography, emphasizing the importance of empirical observation and data analysis. He argued that geography was a scientific discipline that required a systematic approach to the study of the natural and human environment. Kant contribute reading the development of following branches of geography:

  • Mathematical geography (study of the form size and movement of the Earth and the position in the solar system)

  • Moral geography (customs, traditions, rituals, values.)

  • Political geography (study of the relationships between political units and their physical background)

  • Commercial geography (examines the reasons why certain countries have a superfluity of one commodity while others have a deficiency: a condition that gives rise to international trade.)

  • Theological geography (which studies the changes theological principles undergo in different environments e.g. variation of Christian believes in different parts of Europe)

• Environmental Determinism: Kant's ideas about the relationship between humans and the environment helped to lay the foundation for environmental determinism. He believed that the physical environment had a significant impact on human behavior and development, and that understanding the relationship between humans and their environment was essential to understanding the world around us.

The contributions of Varenius and Kant to the development of scientific geography laid the foundation for modern geographic research. Their work emphasized the importance of empirical observation, systematic classification, and the use of mathematical methods in geographic research. They recognized the interdependence of human society and the natural environment, and the role of human activity in shaping the physical landscape and the distribution of natural resources. Their work also reflected a broader interest in the relationship between geography, history, and human society, and laid the groundwork for the development of a range of scientific methods and techniques for studying the natural and human environment.

In conclusion, the transition from cosmography to scientific geography, marked by the contributions of Bernard Varenius and Immanuel Kant, was a significant development in the history of geographic studies. Their works laid the foundation for modern geographic research and emphasized the importance of empirical observation, systematic classification, and the use of mathematical methods in the study of geography. They recognized the interdependence of human society and the natural environment, and the role of human activity in shaping the physical landscape and the distribution of natural resources. Their work also reflected a broader interest in the relationship between geography, history, and human society, and paved the way for the development of a range of scientific methods and techniques for studying the natural and human environment. The legacy of Varenius and Kant continues to influence geographic research today, as modern geographers continue to study the complex relationships between humans and their environment.