Evolution of human societies: From hunting food gathering to urban Industrial Societies

Human Geography DSE 3A SEM-VI

Module prepared by Syfujjaman Tarafder (Assistant Professor)

Evolution of human societies: From hunting food gathering to urban Industrial Societies

The evolution of human societies from hunting and food gathering to modern urban societies has been a long and complex process that has taken place over tens of thousands of years. Throughout this long process of social evolution human societies transform from ancient hunter and food gatherer to modern urban industrial societies. In this process of evolution the total socio-economic characteristics, lifestyle, cultural practices have also been evolved. 

Early human societies were characterized by small groups of people who lived by hunting animals and gathering wild plants for food. These societies were nomadic, moving from place to place in search of food and water. Over time, humans learned to domesticate animals and plants, leading to the development of agriculture and the settling of populations in one place.

The invention of agriculture, which took place around 10,000 years ago, was a major turning point in human history. With the ability to grow crops and raise animals, humans were able to produce surplus food, which in turn led to the development of specialized professions such as craftsmen and traders. This led to the rise of early civilizations, such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China.

As civilizations grew and became more complex, they developed writing systems, organized governments, and social hierarchies. The advent of metallurgy and the use of iron and bronze helped to advance technology and increase productivity. Trade networks developed, allowing goods and ideas to be exchanged over great distances.

In the Middle Ages, feudalism emerged as a dominant social and economic system in Europe, characterized by a hierarchical system of lords, vassals, and serfs. The Renaissance brought about a period of intellectual and artistic growth, leading to scientific discoveries and the spread of humanistic values.

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, saw the rise of mechanization, factories, and mass production. This led to rapid urbanization, with people moving from rural areas to cities in search of work. As cities grew, so did social problems such as poverty, crime, and pollution.

Today, we live in a globalized, interconnected world, with modern societies characterized by advanced technology, global trade, and diverse cultures. Our modern societies have overcome many of the challenges faced by our ancestors, but new challenges such as climate change and economic inequality continue to present significant obstacles to progress.

Different anthropologists and sociologists classified the evolution of human societies into different stages. 

Morgan divided the evolution of human society in three stages- wild phase, Barbarian phase and civilized phase.

Karl Marx divided the evolution of human society in a different way based on the economic relationships in the society. According to him there are two types of economic classes in all phases of societies- the rich and poor. Based on the political history of human evolution he divided human societies evolution into primitive communism, slab society, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and finally global stateless communism. 

Harvard Spencer believed in the evolution of human society from simple society to complex societies.

Based on the ideas given by different societies and anthropologists the evolution of human societies can be divided into the following four stages.

1. Hunting and food gathering societies

Hunting and food gathering societies, also known as hunter-gatherer societies, were the earliest form of human social organization. These societies were typically small, mobile, and egalitarian, with individuals living in close-knit groups of a few dozen to a few hundred people.Some of the key characteristics of hunting and food gathering societies include:

Subsistence: Hunting and food gathering societies relied on natural resources for their subsistence needs. They hunted wild animals and gathered wild plants, fruits, and nuts for food.

Mobility: These societies were highly mobile, often moving from one location to another in search of food or in response to changing environmental conditions.

Egalitarianism: Hunting and food gathering societies were generally egalitarian, with no formal hierarchy or social classes. Decisions were made through consensus rather than through the authority of a single leader.

Kinship: Social relations were typically organized around kinship ties, with family groups forming the basic units of society.

Gender roles: Hunting and food gathering societies often had gender-specific roles and responsibilities. Men typically hunted, while women gathered plant foods and cared for children.

Technology: Hunting and food gathering societies developed a range of tools and techniques for hunting and gathering, including spears, bows and arrows, digging sticks, and traps.

Some of the regions where hunting and food gathering societies were historically found include:

Africa: Many hunting and food gathering societies have lived in Africa for tens of thousands of years. Some notable examples include the San people of southern Africa and the Hadza of Tanzania.

Asia: Hunting and food gathering societies have been found throughout Asia, from the Arctic tundra of Siberia to the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. Some examples include the Nenets of northern Russia and the Semang of Malaysia.

Australia and Oceania: Aboriginal Australians and many indigenous communities in Oceania were traditionally hunting and food gathering societies. The indigenous peoples of Papua New Guinea, for example, continue to rely on hunting and gathering for their subsistence.

North and South America: Many indigenous groups in North and South America were historically hunting and food gathering societies, including the Inuit of Canada and Alaska, the Yanomami of Brazil and Venezuela, and the Hopi of the American Southwest.

Today, hunting and food gathering societies are much less common, and most human societies are based on agriculture or industrial production. However, some communities around the world continue to practice hunting and gathering as part of their traditional way of life.

2. Nomadic harder

Pastoral nomadic societies emerged after the development of agriculture and the domestication of animals, around 10,000-8,000 BCE. These societies are characterized by their reliance on herding and raising domesticated animals for their subsistence, rather than farming. They are often found in arid or semi-arid regions where agriculture is difficult, and have been important to the history and culture of many regions of the world, including Central Asia, East Africa, and the Middle East.

Some of the key characteristics of pastoral nomadic societies include:

Mobility: Pastoral nomads are highly mobile, moving from place to place in search of grazing land for their animals.

Dependence on animals: Herding and raising animals is the primary source of subsistence for pastoral nomads, and they often have a deep cultural connection to their animals.

Social organization: Many pastoral nomads have complex social organization based on kinship ties and clan or tribal identity.

Adaptability: Due to the unpredictable nature of their environment, pastoral nomads are often highly adaptable, able to respond quickly to changes in the availability of resources.

Trade: Pastoral nomads often engage in trade with settled communities, exchanging their animal products for goods and services they cannot produce themselves.

Oral traditions: Like other non-literate societies, pastoral nomads often rely on oral traditions to pass down cultural knowledge and stories.

Artistic expression: Many pastoral nomadic societies have rich artistic traditions, including music, dance, textiles, and decorative arts.

It's important to note that these characteristics are not universal to all pastoral nomadic societies and that there is significant variation within and between different groups. However, these general characteristics help to paint a picture of the unique cultural and social practices of pastoral nomadic societies.

3.  Primitive agricultural societies

Primitive agricultural societies are societies that are primarily based on agriculture and are characterised by a number of key features. These societies are typically small, with populations ranging from a few dozen to a few hundred people. They are also generally very egalitarian, with few if any formal social hierarchies.

The period of primitive agricultural societies can vary depending on the region and specific society being studied, but generally refers to the time period before the development of more complex societies with advanced technologies and social structures. This period can range from several thousand years ago to the early modern era in some parts of the world.

Characteristics of primitive agricultural societies include:

Subsistence agriculture: This refers to the practice of growing crops and raising animals for the purpose of sustaining oneself and one's community. In primitive agricultural societies, agriculture is the primary means of subsistence, and people rely on the land to provide them with food and other necessities. Crops grown may include grains, vegetables, and fruits, while animals raised may include goats, cows, and sheep. Hunting and fishing may also be important sources of food for some societies.

Simple tools: In primitive agricultural societies, tools used for agriculture and other tasks are typically simple and made from natural materials such as wood, stone, and bone. Examples of these tools may include hoes, plows, sickles, and mortars and pestles for grinding grain. These tools are usually hand-held or drawn by animals, such as oxen or horses.

Limited technology: Primitive agricultural societies generally lack the advanced technologies of more complex societies. While they may have developed some basic technologies such as irrigation systems, windmills, and waterwheels, these technologies are typically limited to what is necessary for agriculture and basic survival.

Nomadism or settled agriculture: Some primitive agricultural societies are nomadic, moving from place to place in search of fertile land and fresh water. These societies tend to rely on herding animals rather than crops, and often travel in small groups or bands. Other societies are settled, cultivating the same land year after year. These societies tend to be larger and more complex, with more specialized roles and more advanced social structures.

Egalitarianism: Primitive agricultural societies tend to be relatively egalitarian, with few if any formal social hierarchies. Decisions are often made through consensus, and there may be little or no formal leadership. Wealth and resources are typically shared among members of the community, and there is little emphasis on personal possessions or individual achievement.

Strong sense of community: Community is highly valued in primitive agricultural societies, and people tend to be closely connected to one another. This sense of community is often reinforced through shared traditions, rituals, and customs, which are passed down from generation to generation. These traditions may include storytelling, music, dance, and other forms of cultural expression.

Spiritual beliefs: Most primitive agricultural societies have strong spiritual beliefs, often linked to the natural world and the cycles of agriculture. These beliefs may involve the worship of various gods or spirits, or may be centered around the idea of a single creator or life force. Spiritual leaders may play an important role in these societies, helping to interpret and communicate with the divine.

Overall, primitive agricultural societies are characterized by a simple, subsistence-based way of life that is deeply connected to the land and the natural world. While these societies may lack the technological and social advancements of more complex societies, they are often highly sustainable and able to maintain a stable way of life over long periods of time.

Subsistence Agricultural Societies

Subsistence agriculture is one of the oldest forms of agriculture and has been practiced by human societies for thousands of years. It is believed to have originated independently in multiple regions of the world.

One of the earliest known examples of subsistence agriculture is the cultivation of crops such as wheat and barley in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East, which began around 10,000 years ago. This agricultural revolution is known as the Neolithic Revolution and marked a significant shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a settled agricultural lifestyle.

Subsistence agriculture was also practiced by indigenous peoples in the Americas, who cultivated crops such as maize, beans, and squash as early as 8,000 BCE. Similar subsistence agricultural practices were also developed in regions such as East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa, with each region developing its own unique techniques and crops suited to the local environment.

Subsistence agricultural societies are societies that rely on farming and agriculture as their primary means of subsistence. While the specific characteristics of these societies can vary widely depending on factors such as geography, climate, and cultural traditions, there are several basic characteristics that are common to many subsistence agricultural societies around the world. These characteristics include:

Small-scale farming: In subsistence agricultural societies, farmers tend to rely on small-scale farming rather than large-scale industrial agriculture. This means that they use traditional methods such as hand tools, oxen, or other animals to cultivate their fields. For example, in many parts of rural Africa, farmers use hoes or plows drawn by oxen to till the soil and plant crops such as maize, sorghum, and millet.

Diversity of crops: Subsistence agricultural societies typically grow a diverse range of crops in order to ensure a steady supply of food throughout the year. This may include staples such as grains and legumes, as well as fruits and vegetables. For example, in many parts of rural Asia, farmers may grow rice, wheat, or other grains, as well as vegetables such as cabbage, onions, and tomatoes.

Limited use of technology: While subsistence agricultural societies may use some basic technologies such as irrigation systems or plows, they generally rely on traditional methods and tools rather than advanced technologies. For example, in many parts of rural Latin America, farmers may use irrigation canals or systems to water their crops, but they may still use hand tools such as machetes or hoes to cultivate the land.

Limited trade and market exchange: Subsistence agricultural societies tend to be relatively self-sufficient, with limited trade or market exchange. Farmers may grow surplus crops to sell or trade, but this is typically not their primary source of income. For example, in many parts of rural Africa, farmers may sell surplus crops at local markets, but they still rely primarily on subsistence farming for their livelihoods.

Egalitarian social structures: Subsistence agricultural societies tend to have relatively egalitarian social structures, with little or no formal hierarchy or social stratification. Decision-making may be based on consensus or community input rather than individual authority. For example, in many rural communities in India, decisions about land use and resource management may be made collectively by a village council rather than by individual landowners.

Strong community ties: Community is often highly valued in subsistence agricultural societies, and people tend to be closely connected to one another. Social ties may be reinforced through shared traditions and rituals. For example, in many parts of rural Africa, communities may come together to celebrate harvest festivals or other cultural events that celebrate their connection to the land and to one another.

Connection to nature: Subsistence agricultural societies tend to have a strong connection to the natural world, as they rely on the land for their livelihoods. This may be reflected in spiritual beliefs and practices that are connected to the cycles of agriculture. For example, in many indigenous communities in South America, spiritual practices may be tied to the planting and harvesting of crops, with rituals and ceremonies designed to honour the earth and the natural world. 

Regions:

Subsistence agricultural practices can be found in various regions of the world, but they are most commonly found in developing countries, particularly in rural areas. Here are some regions where subsistence agricultural practices are still present:

Sub-Saharan Africa: Many rural communities in Sub-Saharan Africa rely on subsistence agriculture for their livelihoods. Farmers in this region often use traditional methods such as hand tools and animal-drawn plows to cultivate crops such as maize, sorghum, and millet.

South Asia: Subsistence agricultural practices are also common in South Asia, particularly in rural areas of India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Farmers in this region often grow crops such as rice, wheat, and vegetables using traditional farming techniques.

Southeast Asia: Subsistence agriculture is also prevalent in rural areas of Southeast Asia, including countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. Farmers in this region often grow rice and other crops using traditional farming methods.

Latin America: Subsistence agriculture is still practiced in many rural communities in Latin America, particularly in countries such as Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru. Farmers in this region often grow crops such as maize, beans, and potatoes using traditional methods.

Pacific Islands: Subsistence agriculture is also common in many Pacific Island nations, including Fiji, Samoa, and Papua New Guinea. Farmers in this region often grow crops such as taro, yams, and bananas using traditional farming techniques.

While subsistence agricultural practices are still present in many parts of the world, it's important to note that many rural communities are transitioning to more modern farming methods as a result of factors such as increased access to technology and market opportunities. Nonetheless, subsistence agriculture remains an important part of many people's livelihoods in developing countries, and it continues to play a significant role in food security and rural development.

4. Industrial societies

The development of industrial society is a complex and multi-faceted process that has unfolded over centuries and across different regions of the world. Generally speaking, the industrial society can be understood as a social and economic system that is characterized by the large-scale use of advanced technologies, machines, and factories to produce goods and services. This system is marked by several key stages of development, which are described below.

The first Industrial Revolution: The second stage of the development of industrial society is the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread to other parts of Europe and North America in the 19th century. This period was marked by the invention of new machines and technologies, such as the steam engine, which allowed for the large-scale production of goods in factories. This led to a significant increase in productivity and economic growth.

The Second Industrial Revolution: The third stage of the development of industrial society is the Second Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 19th century and lasted until World War I. This period was marked by the invention of new technologies, such as electricity and the internal combustion engine, which led to the growth of new industries, such as the automobile industry. This period also saw the rise of mass production and consumer culture.

Post-World War II Period: The fourth stage of the development of industrial society is the post-World War II period, which began in the 1940s and lasted until the 1970s. This period was marked by the growth of the welfare state and the expansion of government intervention in the economy. It also saw the rise of multinational corporations and the growth of the service sector.

Globalization and Information Age: The fifth and current stage of the development of industrial society is characterized by globalization and the Information Age. This period is marked by the rise of the internet and digital technologies, which have transformed the way that people communicate, work, and consume goods and services. It has also seen the growth of global supply chains and the increasing interdependence of national economies.

Characteristics of Industrial Society: 

Technological Advancement: As mentioned earlier, industrial societies are characterized by the widespread use of advanced technologies, which have transformed the way goods and services are produced, exchanged, and consumed. Industrial technologies include machinery, computers, telecommunications systems, and other innovations that have allowed for increased efficiency, precision, and speed in production processes. Technological advancements have also enabled industrial societies to develop new forms of transportation, energy, and infrastructure, which have further fueled economic growth and global trade.

Division of Labor: Another key characteristic of industrial society is the division of labor, where individuals perform specialized tasks in the production process. Division of labor is made possible by the use of machinery and other technologies, which allow for the automation and standardization of many tasks. This specialization has led to increased efficiency and productivity in the production of goods and services.

Urbanization: The growth of industrial society has often been accompanied by urbanization, as people move from rural areas to cities in search of employment in factories and other industries. This migration has led to the growth of urban populations, the development of new urban infrastructures, and the emergence of new forms of urban culture and social organization.

Mass Production: Industrial society is also characterized by mass production, which is made possible by the use of machinery and assembly lines. Mass production allows for the rapid and efficient production of standardized goods, which can be sold to a large and diverse consumer market. Mass production has led to a proliferation of consumer goods and has contributed to the rise of consumer culture.

Consumerism: The growth of industrial society has also led to the rise of consumer culture, as people have access to a wide range of goods and services that were previously unavailable. Consumer culture is characterized by the constant promotion and consumption of new products and services, which are often tied to notions of status, identity, and lifestyle. The growth of consumerism has led to the development of marketing and advertising industries, which play a key role in shaping consumer desires and preferences.

Bureaucratization: Industrial societies are also characterized by the growth of bureaucratic institutions, such as corporations, government agencies, and non-profit organizations. These institutions are often hierarchical, centralized, and specialized, and they play a key role in the organization and management of industrial processes and activities. Bureaucratization has led to the development of new forms of administrative and managerial expertise, which have helped to sustain and expand industrial society. However, it has also led to concerns about alienation, depersonalization, and the erosion of democratic accountability.

5. Modern Urban societies

Modern urban societies have undergone several stages of development over the past few centuries. The following are the stages of development of modern urban societies. 

1. Pre-Industrial Cities: This stage began in ancient times and continued until the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries. Pre-industrial cities were typically small, with populations of a few thousand to tens of thousands of people. They were centers of trade, commerce, and administration, and their economies were largely based on agriculture, craft production, and small-scale manufacturing. The physical layout of pre-industrial cities was often cramped and irregular, with narrow streets, crowded housing, and limited public infrastructure. Social hierarchies were pronounced, with a small elite class living in the center of the city and the majority of the population living in poorer outskirts. 

Rome: The ancient city of Rome, which was founded in 753 BC, was one of the largest and most influential cities of the pre-industrial era. It was the center of the Roman Empire, and its architecture, art, and political institutions had a profound impact on the Western world.

Beijing: The Chinese capital of Beijing has a long history dating back to the 3rd century BC. It has been the capital of several dynasties throughout history and is home to many important cultural and historical sites, such as the Forbidden City and the Great Wall.

2. Industrial Cities: This stage began in the late 18th century and continued through the 19th and early 20th centuries. Industrial cities emerged as a result of the Industrial Revolution, which introduced new technologies and forms of production. Industrial cities were characterized by the growth of factories, large-scale manufacturing, and the migration of people from rural areas to urban centers in search of work. This led to rapid population growth and the development of new neighborhoods and suburbs. The physical layout of industrial cities was characterized by grid-like street patterns, large factories and warehouses, and dense housing for workers. Social and economic stratification became more complex, with the emergence of new middle-class groups alongside the working-class and the wealthy elite.

Manchester: Manchester, England, was one of the first cities to experience the effects of the Industrial Revolution. It became a center of cotton manufacturing and grew rapidly in the 19th century, with a population that grew from 25,000 in 1770 to over 600,000 by 1900.

Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in the United States, was a major industrial center in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with a strong focus on steel production. Its location at the confluence of three rivers made it an ideal transportation hub for the movement of goods and people.

3. Post-Industrial Cities: This stage began in the mid-20th century and continues to the present day. Post-industrial cities emerged as a result of the shift away from manufacturing and towards service-oriented economies. Post-industrial cities are characterized by the growth of new forms of employment in sectors such as finance, technology, and the arts. These cities are often centers of innovation and creativity, with diverse and vibrant cultural scenes. The physical layout of post-industrial cities is characterized by mixed-use neighborhoods, with a blend of residential, commercial, and cultural spaces. Social stratification remains an important feature, with increasing inequality and urban poverty in many cities.

Berlin: Berlin, Germany, was heavily damaged during World War II and underwent significant reconstruction and development in the post-war period. It has since become a center of culture, creativity, and innovation, with a diverse population and a thriving arts scene.

Seattle: Seattle, Washington, in the United States, is a post-industrial city that has experienced significant growth in the technology sector. It is home to major companies such as Amazon and Microsoft, and has a reputation as a center of innovation and entrepreneurship.

4. Global Cities: This stage began in the late 20th century and continues to the present day. Global cities are characterized by their importance in global economic and cultural networks, and their ability to attract talent and investment from around the world. Global cities are often centers of innovation, with advanced technologies and sophisticated infrastructures. These cities are also characterized by their diversity, with large populations of people from different cultural backgrounds and nationalities. Social stratification remains an important feature, with large disparities in wealth and opportunity between different groups of residents. Environmental challenges such as air pollution, waste management, and climate change are also significant issues in many global cities.

New York City: New York City is one of the most important global cities in the world, with a large and diverse population, a thriving economy, and a significant role in international finance and trade.

Tokyo: Tokyo, Japan, is a global city that is known for its advanced technology, culture, and economy. It is home to major companies such as Toyota and Sony, and has a reputation as a center of innovation and creativity.

Characteristics:

here are some more elaborated characteristics of modern urban societies with examples:

Diverse Population: Modern urban societies are often characterized by a diverse population with people from various cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds. This diversity can lead to a rich and vibrant cultural scene, but it can also lead to social and economic challenges.

For example, New York City in the United States is known for its diversity, with residents from over 190 different countries. This has led to a rich cultural scene, with diverse cuisines, festivals, and arts. However, it has also led to social and economic challenges, such as segregation, discrimination, and income inequality.

Dense and Concentrated Settlements: Modern urban societies are characterized by densely populated areas, where people live and work in close proximity. This concentration of people can lead to a high demand for resources such as housing, transportation, and public services.

For example, Tokyo in Japan is one of the most densely populated cities in the world, with over 37 million people in its metropolitan area. This has led to a high demand for housing, with many residents living in small apartments. It has also led to innovative transportation solutions, such as the extensive subway system and efficient high-speed rail.

Advanced Technology: Modern urban societies often have advanced technology and infrastructure, including transportation systems, communication networks, and energy systems. This infrastructure allows for efficient movement of goods and people, as well as access to information and services.

For example, Singapore is known for its advanced technology, with a focus on sustainability and innovation. It has a highly developed transportation system, with efficient public transportation and an extensive network of bike paths. It is also a leader in green technology, with a focus on renewable energy and waste management.

Economic Opportunities: Urban areas often provide a wide range of economic opportunities, such as employment, entrepreneurship, and investment. This can lead to a higher standard of living for many residents, but can also create inequality and poverty.

For example, Mumbai in India is a major economic hub, with a thriving financial sector and a growing tech industry. However, it also has a significant poverty rate, with many residents living in slums and struggling to access basic services such as clean water and healthcare.

Cultural and Intellectual Life: Modern urban societies often have a rich cultural and intellectual life, with access to museums, theaters, libraries, and other cultural institutions. This can promote creativity, innovation, and diversity of thought.

For example, Paris in France is known for its cultural and intellectual scene, with a wealth of museums, art galleries, and universities. It has been a center of artistic and intellectual innovation for centuries, with a rich history of literature, philosophy, and art.

Environmental Challenges: Urban areas can also face significant environmental challenges, such as pollution, waste management, and climate change. These challenges can impact the health and well-being of urban residents, as well as the sustainability of the city over the long term.

For example, Beijing in China has faced significant environmental challenges due to air pollution, water pollution, and climate change. It has implemented policies to address these issues, such as promoting electric vehicles and investing in renewable energy, but the challenges remain significant.

Political Power: Urban areas often have significant political power, both within their own national context and on the global stage. This can lead to a strong influence on policy decisions and cultural trends, as well as economic and political power struggles between urban and rural areas.

For example, London in the United Kingdom is a major political and economic center, with significant influence both within the UK and on the global stage. It has a thriving financial sector and a diverse cultural scene, but also faces challenges related to inequality, housing affordability, and political polarization.