Introduction
Geography is the study of the earth's surface as a home of man. It searches answers of the three basic questions, what, where and how/why. The subject of discussion of Geography centres around human beings. Richard Hartshorn defined geography in his book "perspective on the nature of geography" (1959) "geography is concerned to provide accurate orderly and rational description and interpretation of the variable character of the Earth surface."
The physical component of the Earth surface which influences man, and his activities are discussed in physical geography and the man itself and his different activities are discussed in human geography. Frederick Ratzel defined human geography as the synthetic study of the relationship between human societies and the Earth surface.
Human geography is a subfield of geography that focuses on the study of human activities, patterns, and processes on the Earth's surface. It examines the relationships between human societies and their physical and cultural environments, as well as the ways in which human behaviour shapes and is shaped by the natural and built landscapes.
Human geography covers a wide range of topics, including population growth and distribution, migration, urbanisation, cultural and economic globalisation, political geography, and environmental sustainability. It uses a variety of research methods, including quantitative and qualitative approaches, to analyse these phenomena at different scales, from the local to the global.
Nature of Human geography
The relationship between man and environment is the main focus of human geography and it is dynamic because overtime the progress of human civilization along with its cultural progress make this relationship dynamic. Thus, the nature of relationship and the way this relationship is to be studied changes over time.The nature of human geography is interdisciplinary, drawing on theories and methodologies from a variety of fields, including sociology, anthropology, economics, political science, and environmental science.
It encompasses a broad range of topics, including population growth and distribution, migration, urbanisation, cultural and economic globalisation, political geography, and environmental sustainability.
Following are some key points describing the nature and characteristics of human geography.
- Human geography is the Study of human ecology
So, the central idea of human ecology is that man like plants and animals has to struggle in his physical environment and in this process of struggle the weaker get eliminated. Human geography as human ecology was further strengthened by the work of Lamarckian who emphasised that organisms could consciously adapt themselves to their surroundings and pass on acquired characteristics to offsprings.
- Human Geography is man and his adjustment to his natural environment
Not only that, the way of life of men depends on the level of technological advancements and cultural progress. Variation in cultural progress has created variations within human groups in different parts of the world. The tribal groups residing in harsh physiographic and climatic conditions (Eskimo, Aboriginal, Pygmies, Kirghiz, Gujjars etc) are compelled by their environment to practice primitive activities for their livelihoods. Sometimes human groups living in the same environmental conditions possess different stages of development. There are numerous human groups (racial, ethnic) in the world who live in different Geo-climatic conditions in various parts of the world. They differ in many respects. Some of these groups are more advanced in science and technology than others.
- Human geography as social science
- Human geography as the spatial science
- Human geography as study of areal differences
Regional geography aims to identify and describe the distinct characteristics of different regions, such as their physical landscapes, climate, natural resources, and human populations. It seeks to understand the relationships between these characteristics and the patterns of human activity and behaviour that occur within each region.
Regional geography is particularly useful in understanding how human activities are shaped by local and regional factors, and how these activities in turn influence regional development and change. For example, a regional approach might be used to examine the economic development of a particular region, or the impact of climate change on a specific ecosystem.
This approach is useful for understanding the complex interactions between humans and their environment and can contribute to the development of more sustainable and just regional and local policies.
- Interdisciplinary approach
- Scale
For example, they might study the impacts of urbanization on local communities, the effects of global trade on national economies, or the impact of climate change on global ecosystems.
- Historical perspective
- Critical approach
Some Definitions:
Different geographers defined Geography in their own ways.
Semple said, "human geography is the study of the changing relationship between the unresting man and the unstable Earth".
Huntington said, "Human Geography is the study of the nature and distribution of the relationship between geographical environment and human activities and qualities".
Demangeon said, "Human Geography is the study of human groups and societies in their relation to the physical environment'.
White and Renner said, "human geography studies mens adjustments to the natural environment, the varied and peculiar ways in which he adopts his life, with holy or in part, to physical and organic nature".
Carter said, "Human Geography is primarily concerned with the relations between men, ways of life and the places in which they live".
Scope:
As already discussed in the previous paragraph, human geography studies human elements on the geographical space. There are both systematic and regional approaches to study. And as human beings are culturally dynamic in nature therefore the relationship of human beings with nature is also dynamic. Thus the methods and subject matter of human Geography also changes over time.
There are different social science disciplines which match with the subject matter of human geography but the scope of study of those social science disciplines differ considerably from human geography. The scope of Human Geography can be understood from the following points:
- Human response to the environment
- Human impact on environment
- Study of entire human race
It emphasises on people where they are, what they are like, how the workspace and time and what kinds of landscapes humans use are erect upon the natural landscape they occupy. It also expresses its interest on all those topics that are not directly concerned with the physical environment.
- Welfare approach in human geography
- Human Geography is the study of economic activities
- The study of location
Approaches to study human geography
As the subject matter of human Geography is dynamic because the interaction of human beings with the environment is dynamic, the approaches to study human Geography are also changing. With the development of the subject different approaches are used to study human groups and their activities on the earth's surface.
This can be categorised as follows:
A. Theoretical Approaches
- Traditional approaches
Possibility approach
Historical approach
Systematic approach
Regional approach
- Contemporary approaches
Ecological approach
Behavioural approach
Humanistic approach
Radical approach
Welfare approach
B. Applied approaches
Locational approach
Landscape approach
Resource approach
Environmental approach
- Deterministic approach:
In other words, the variation in human behaviour around the world can be explained by differences in the natural environment.
The essence of the deterministic school of thought is that the history, culture, lifestyle and stage of development of a social group, society or nation are exclusively or largely governed by physical factors like train climate, drainage, flora and fauna of the environment.
Deterministic philosophers consider man as a passive agent on which environmental factors are acting and determining his attitude, decision making process and lifestyle.
The idea of deterministic philosophy explaining human beings and its development dates back to ancient Greek and Roman scholars. Hipparcus, Herodotus, Aristotle etc are some of them.
Aristotle explains the differences between Northern European and Asians people in terms of climatic causes.
Strabo attempted to explain how slow relief climate all were the works of God and how these phenomena govern the lifestyles of people.
The Arab geographers also believe in environmental determinism.
In the classical and modern period also many philosophers wire in support of environmental determinism.
Emmanuel Kant said, all the inhabitants of hot lands are exceptional lazy and timid which leads to slavery.
Karl Ritter attempted to establish the cause of variations in the physical constitution of body, physique and health in the different physical environmental conditions.
Humboldt asserted that the mode of life of the inhabitants of mountainous country differs from that of people of the plain.
Ratzel who is the founder of scientific determinism supplementary classical determination with elements of social Darwinism and developed theory of organic state. According to him, similar locations lead to a similar mode of life.
Semple in his book "influences geographic environment'' said "man is a product of the Earth surface. This means not nearly that he is a child of the earth, dust of her dust, but that the earth has mothered him, fed him, set him tasks, directed his thoughts, confronted him with difficulties that have strengthened his body and sharpens his wits, given him the problems of navigation or irrigation and at the same time whispered hints for their solutions".
Huntington believed that climate was the fundamental factor in the rise of civilization. He produced a map showing temperate climate at the highest level of health and energy and civilization. The basic philosophy of Huntington was that the supreme achievement of civilization in any region where always bound up with a particular type of climate and variation in climate lead to pulsations in the history of culture.
Taylor modified the extreme environment and determination as "stop and go determinism or neo-determinism.."
Determinism has several other.Forms: Cultural and social determinism. Social determinism and cultural determinism swais that, “our thoughts determine our apps and our acts determine the previous nature of the world”. The modification of an environment largely depends on our perception, ideas, and decision making processes.
- Possibilistic approach
Possibilism aims to explain man and environment relationship in a different way taking man as an active agent in the environment.
According to Fevre "the true and only geographical problem is that of utilisation of possibilities."
Environment gives a series of possibilities for human development but the development took place in relation to the culture of the people concerned, except the regions of extreme environmental conditions like desert, tundra or high mountains.
Vidal de LaBlache was a strong supporter of possibilism and his work on lifestyles developed in different geographical environments put forward the concept of possibilism. According to him lifestyles are the products and reflections of a civilization representing the integrated result of physical historical and social influences surrounding mens relation to milieu in a particular place.
J Brunhes was a strong supporter of possibilism.
Sauer asserted that a geographer's role is to investigate and understand the nature of the transition from the natural to the cultural landscape.
According to the possibilist philosophy, nature is never more than an advisor and they put man in the first place. Yakuts Retain a livestock and horse Harding economy. The Yakuts have persuaded the horses and cattle to eat dried meat of reindeer's and fish instead of fodder and grases.
In spite of the fact that man has numerous possibilities in a given physical setting, he cannot go against the direction laid by the physical environment.
- Historical approach
Geography and history fill up the entire circumference of our perception: Geography, that of space History, that of time. Kant said, “History differs from geography only in consideration of time and space.
- Systematic Approach
- Regional Approach
Vidal de laBlache described the difference in human lifestyle (Genre de vie) in the central massif of France, called by him ‘Pays’ which are geographic regions.
Hartshorn in his book “Perspective on natural geography” Said that ‘the basic objective of the discipline geography is to provide accurate, orderly and rational description and interpretation of the variable character of the earth’s surface.
In fact, the geographers main concern is how things are distributed over the surface of the earth, how physical and cultural features of areas are alike or different from place to place, how the varying content of different places came about and what all these differences and similarities mean for people. The regions may be physical or cultural based on the criteria used for defining a region. Formal region shows a certain degree of similarities in some attributes while the functional region shows functional integration between the centre or node and the surroundings. Feature of region is-
- Region have locations
- Region have spatial extent
- Regions have boundaries.
- Spatial Approach
The goal of spatial analysis was building accurate generalisations with predictive power by precise quantitative description of spatial distribution, spatial structure and organisation and spatial relationship.
The generalisations arrived at with the application of spatial analysis could be based on just three fundamental spatial concepts: 1. Direction, 2. Distance and 3. Connection.
Spatial analysis for men and environment relationships has been criticised on several counts.One of the main criticisms is that special analysis focused on spatial determinism and the logical impossibility of defining spatial variables independent of the context within which they were supposed to operate.
Another weakness of spatial analysis is that it does not take into consideration the cultural values and normative questions while attempting to establish the man and environment relationship.
The Marxist and Radicalists consider special analysis as a device to promote capitalism and exploit workers and the environment.
- Behavioural Approach
Quantitative techniques provided poor descriptions of geographic reality and man and environment relationships.
Theories of explaining spatial organisation of human activities merely based on statistics are found inadequate to explain the special organisation of society.
Economic rationality of men while making decisions was criticised as the flood plain dwellers behaviour cannot be explained by the economic rationality because these people live there despite the fear of flood.
The objectives of behavioural approach where:
- To develop models for humanity which were alternatives to the spatial location theories.
- To define the cognitive environment which determines the decision-making process of men.
- To unfold the spatial decisions of psychological, social, and other theories of human decision making and behaviour.
- To search for methods other than mathematical and statistical that could uncover the latent structure in data and decision making.
- To emphasise on processual rather than structural explanation of human activity and physical environment.
- People have environmental images.
- Images can be identified accurately by researchers, and
- There is a strong relationship between environmental image and actual behaviour, or the decision making process of man.
- The behaviouristic approach is largely inductive, aiming to build general statements out of observations of ongoing process.
- The essence of behavioural approach in geography is the fact that the way in which people behave is mediated by their understanding of the environment in which they live or by the environment itself with which they are confronted.
I. As an objective environment- The world of actuality.
II. As a behavioural environment- The world of the mind, constructed by an individual.
Behavioural geographers Give more weight to an individual rather than to groups or organisations or society.
The followers of behavioural geography do not recognise men as ‘rational person’ or ‘economic man’ who always try to optimise his profits. Rather, man takes his decisions based on his behavioural environment, (the mental map) rather than the objective of or real environment.
- Ecological approach
The goal of ecological approach in human geography is to study man-environment relationship in ecological perspective. Human beings are not more than any other organism in the ecosystem but the cultural role of man creates problems. Individual and human populations (Population ecology, carrying capacity) both are studied from an ecological perspective.
Not only the man-environment relationship but the relationships between human groups and the spatial organisation of human beings (urban structure) also studies in the light of basic ecological principles.
- Humanistic approach
Humanistic approach in human geography puts human beings at the very centre, about the real people, and for the people to develop human beings for all.
Kirk (1951), Yi Fu Tuan (1976), are major proponents of humanistic geography.
Humanistic geography gives a central and active role to human agency and awareness, human consciousness and human creativity.
It tries to understand the meaning, value and significance of humans' role in its life events. It does not recognise human beings as machines, rather it is a subjective approach. In order to explain the human organisation on space importance should be given to the everyday experience and recognise the human potential and creativity.
The themes of humanistic approach in human geography are-
Geographical knowledge (Personal Geography. Man is the superior form of life and has special capacity for thought and reflection. Thus, the primary task of humanistic geographers is the study of geographical knowledge of a person. The people have a broad range of ideas regarding space, location, place and resources. All human groups possess such ideas though the degree of articulation varies widely from group to group.)
Territory and Place (Territorial consciousness and emotional attachment to a place and a particular territory is very important to a person which should be interpreted by humanistic geographers.)
Crowding and Privacy (Crowding of a place leads to physical and psychological stress to a person. Behaviour of animals, including man, at a crowded place, becomes abnormal. Similarly, privacy and solitude also affect the thinking process and decision-making. Every person regarding space. Everyone needs privacy though the degree and kind May vary.)
Livelihood and Economics (Everyone sustains himself by doing some economic and social activities. All human activities appear to be economic and functional in the sense that they support the social system outside of which people cannot live. While working for his livelihood, man differentiates between life sustaining and life destroying activities. All people and professional planners plan their economic activities according to their knowledge and technology.)
Religion (In the world, religion is the most dominating cultural component that determines the pattern of human behaviour. Religion influences the degree of relationships among different groups and the sense of ownness or differences.)
- Radical approach
The radical geographers believe that inequality is inherent in the capitalist mode of production. So, it is very necessary to redistribute the income.
The followers of radical approach in human geography mainly concentrated on the issues of great social Relevance, like inequality, racism, sexism, crime, delinquency, discrimination against black, non-whites and females, exploitation of juveniles and environmental resources.
Severe radicalist movement spread in the USA in the 1960s After USA's loss in the Vietnam war. Massive anti Vietnam War protest action and radical cultural reformation exposed the social and political irrelevance of geography as a spatial science and proved the hollowness of locational analysis.
In brief, the radical geography was a quest for social relevance of the discipline geography at a time of contradiction and crisis in the capitalist Society of the West.
Richard Peet, William Bunge, David Harvey are some of the radical geographers.
Peet (1977) Describe the object tips of radical geography as-
- To expose the issues of inequality, deprivation, discrimination, health exploitation, prime and environmental degradation in the capitalist countries.
- To highlight the weakness of positivism and quantity devolution in geography.
- To bring a cultural revolution to eradicate permissiveness, sexism and discrimination against female.
- Regional inequalities.
- To remove imperialism, nationalism, the idea of superiority of white and the West.
- To develop a more just equal tension free, peaceful and enjoyable society.
Welfare approach in geography developed after the Quantity revolution as a reaction to it. Radical approach in geography leads to the development of welfare geography.
Welfare geography focuses on the role of government policies on social welfare and the special distribution of welfare and justice. The distribution of socially justified elements like income distribution, poverty, distribution of resources and opportunities all are studied in welfare geography.
Welfare geography discusses the social welfare, social justice, social inequality, standard of living, quality of life of different social groups in different geographical areas.
Five stage study of the socially relevant problems are studied: Description, explanation, evaluation, prescription and implementation.
- Locational approach
The main objective of location analysis was expressed as building accurate generalisation models and theories with predictive power.
It is based on the philosophy of positivism, which concentrates on the identification of theories of spatial arrangements and so is closely linked to the discipline's quantitative revolution.
Location analysis is based on empiricism. Empiricism is a philosophy which give special privilege to empirical observation over theoretical statements.
Peter Hagget in his book ‘Locational Analysis in Human Geography’ (1965) Asked to adopt geometric tradition to explain order, location order and patterns in human geography. His suggestion includes,
i. Patterns and linkages within a whole assemblage,
ii. Employ model to understand men and environment relationship,
iii. Use quantity techniques to make precise statements, that is generalisation.
There are different forms of location which have different importance to human activities.
Absolute location-
Relative location-
Site and Situation-
Location determines the distribution of human activities and level of progress, interactions between different human groups and activities and spatial organisation of those activities and groups.
Other geographers contributed in the field of locational analysis are- Morril, Col, Cox, Harvey, Johnston, Smith etc.
- Landscape approach
Sauer opined that geography deals with area, region or landscape. He also opined that geography is conceived as the establishment of a critical system which embraces the phenomenology of landscape.
Landscape approach sought to describe and explain the interrelations between humans and the environment, with primary attention given to the human impact on the environment. Landscapes have form, function and structure. It can be of three types:
- i. physical landscape,
- ii. cultural landscape,
- iii. modified natural landscape.
Few examples of cultural landscapes are Urban land use structures, Land use structures proposed by Von Thunen etc.
- Resource approach
The most economic and valuable resources which are limited in reserve like, petroleum, coal, natural gas, precious metals- gold, silver, platinum, radioactive mineral- uranium etc. are the factors of global economic trade, political conflict and power relations.
Resources are those aspects of men's environment which render possible or facilitate the satisfaction of human wants and the attainment of social objectives. Zimmerman is one of the important proponents of resources in human geography.
From the history of human movement it is found that people move across the continents in search of natural resources for the sake of their better development. This process is very much associated with the cultural progress of human groups.
Spread of European colonisation in Asia, America and Africa was nothing but the search for resources in new areas.
Resources determine human migration and settlement and economic activities. Zimmerman said, resource works as a means of attaining given ends, that is, individual wants and social objectives.
- Resource perception and development
- Resource and Primary economic activities
- Resource and secondary economic activities
- Resource depletion and human crisis
- Resource exploitation and environmental quality
- Limits to Growth
- Sustainable Development Approaches
- Green initiatives
- Community based natural resource management.
Environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround men at a given point of space and time. UNEP Said, the environment is the product of mutual interaction and functional integration of physical and biological elements in which man and all organisms live.
Human beings are the most advanced animal species in the world and they can have a considerable impact on the environment. Technologically advanced people exploiting the environment in many senses which are creating numerous environmental problems- long term and short term. These impacts are making the ecosystems vulnerable for other living specieses to live and sustain.
Environmental approach focuses on the active role of environment and preservation of environment for living beings and for our future generation. Without a healthy environment we can not survive for a long time.
It helps to understand the deep ecological principles and importance of biodiversity for the environment and the human being. Environmental perception is now a global movement for better handling the environment.
Awareness and initiatives about the environment:
- environmental pollution and degradation,
- intensified environmental extreme events,
- preservation of environmental quality,
- environmental protection movement,
- environment friendly development programme- sustainable development, Green initiatives, green technology, green economy
- Environmental Impact Assessment
Branches of human geography and relationship with social sciences
In order to discuss and analyse each and every activity of all the human groups in the world, Human Geography developed different systematic branches which are related to different branches of social science.
Cultural geography and anthropology: Cultural geography is concerned with the study of how people use and perceive space, and how cultural practices shape human activity and behaviour in particular places. Anthropology is also concerned with the study of human cultures and their characteristics. These two fields often collaborate to study the ways in which cultural practices, beliefs, and values shape human activity in different geographic contexts. For example, cultural geographers and anthropologists might work together to study how religious practices influence the use of urban public spaces in different parts of the world.
Economic geography and economics: Economic geography is concerned with the spatial distribution of economic activities and the ways in which economic processes shape human activity and behaviour. Economics is concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. These two fields often collaborate to study the ways in which economic systems and processes influence patterns of spatial organisation and development. For example, economic geographers and economists might work together to study the impacts of globalisation on regional economic development and the distribution of wealth and resources.
Political geography and political science: Political geography is concerned with the spatial distribution of political power and the ways in which political processes shape human activity and behaviour. Political science is concerned with the study of political institutions, processes, and behaviour. These two fields often collaborate to study the ways in which political power is distributed and exercised in different geographic contexts. For example, political geographers and political scientists might work together to study the impacts of gerrymandering on electoral outcomes and political representation.
Urban geography and sociology/urban planning: Urban geography is concerned with the spatial organisation and development of cities and urban areas, and the ways in which social processes shape urban form and function. Sociology is concerned with the study of social behaviour and organisations, while urban planning is concerned with the design and management of urban spaces. These three fields often collaborate to study the ways in which social processes influence urban development and the design of urban spaces. For example, urban geographers, sociologists, and urban planners might work together to study the impacts of gentrification on urban neighbourhoods and the social and economic dynamics of urban development.
Social geography and sociology: Social geography and sociology share many common themes and concepts, such as the study of human behaviour, social structures, and culture. However, they differ in their approach to the study of these phenomena. Sociology is a social science that focuses on the study of social structures, institutions, and relationships. It seeks to understand the patterns of social behaviours that emerge from these structures and relationships, as well as the factors that influence them. Sociology is concerned with the study of social groups, such as families, communities, and organisations, and how these groups interact with each other. Social geography, on the other hand, is a subfield of geography that focuses on the spatial distribution of social phenomena and the ways in which social processes shape human activity and behaviour in particular places. It seeks to understand the relationship between human activity and the physical and social environments in which it occurs. Social geography is concerned with the study of social and cultural landscapes, as well as the ways in which social and cultural practices shape the built environment.
Despite their differences, social geography and sociology share many common research interests and approaches. Both fields are concerned with the study of social phenomena and seek to understand the ways in which social structures, institutions, and relationships shape human activity and behaviour. They also share a concern with the relationship between social phenomena and the physical and social environments in which they occur. In practice, researchers in social geography and sociology often collaborate on research projects, bringing together their different perspectives and approaches to gain a more comprehensive understanding of social phenomena.
For example, a study of neighbourhood segregation might draw on both social geography and sociology to understand the spatial distribution of different racial and ethnic groups, as well as the social and cultural factors that contribute to this segregation.
Population geography and demography: These two are closely related fields of study that both focus on the characteristics and dynamics of human populations. While there is some overlap between the two fields, there are also some key differences in their focus and methods. Demography is a social science that is concerned with the study of human population characteristics, such as size, composition, distribution, and change over time. Demographers use statistical methods to analyse population data and to make predictions about future population trends. Demography is also concerned with the causes and consequences of population change, such as fertility, mortality, migration, and aging. Population geography, on the other hand, is a subfield of geography that focuses on the spatial distribution of human populations and the ways in which human populations interact with their physical and social environments. Population geographers are interested in the ways in which population characteristics and dynamics vary across different geographic regions and how these variations are influenced by environmental and social factors.
Despite their differences, population geography and demography are closely related and often overlap in their research interests and methods. Both fields are concerned with understanding the characteristics and dynamics of human populations and the factors that influence them. They both use quantitative methods to analyse population data, and both are concerned with the spatial distribution of population characteristics.
For example, a population geographer might use demographic data to analyse the spatial distribution of different age groups within a particular region, in order to understand the spatial patterns of population aging. Similarly, a demographer might use population geography methods to analyse the spatial patterns of migration within a country or region, in order to better understand the factors that drive migration and the impacts of migration on different regions.
Content:
Human Geography discusses all the aspects of human beings in a systematic way. Different geography categorised the subject matter of human geography.
1. Jean Brunhes in his human geography book categorised the content of human Geography into three facets:
Facts of unproductive occupation of the soil (human settlement and all other non-agricultural development on the soil)
Facts of plant and animal conquest (the discovery practice of agriculture and domestication of animals)
Facts of destructive exploration (resource extraction)
2. Huntington discussed the subject matter of human Geography into four categories:
Material needs of human being (food, dress, shelter, different tools, transport)
Fundamental occupations (hunting, livestock rearing, food gathering, fishing, lumbering, mining commerce and trade)
Human efficiency (health, education, cultural components, recreation)
Higher need (political organisation, government, higher education, science and technology, religion, fine and performing arts etc)
3. Perpillous in his human geography book discussed following four categories subject matter of human geography:
Factors of human evolution (the physical factors, ethnic and racial factors that influence the growth and evolution of human groups)
Forms of adaptation to the environment (the different forms of human adaptation to environment in different geo-climatic conditions: life and living of different population group)
Technical facts and stages in human emancipation (the development of culture and technology, industrial activities, transport,communication and trade)
Human settlement (Concept nature, habitat of economic activities, human societies, the growth of human population, trends of density, distribution and growth of human population, migration of population, rural and urban settlement)
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