The term diaspora refers to communities, typically ethnic or religious in nature, that share a common origin but have become dispersed across different geographical areas. The word itself is derived from the ancient Greek dia speiro, meaning “to scatter.” 

Historically, the concept was mainly associated with the dispersion of the Jewish people following the destruction of Jerusalem in the 6th century BCE. It was also linked to Greek communities spread throughout the Hellenic world. In the mid-20th century, particularly from the 1950s and 1960s onward, scholars began applying the term more broadly, notably to describe the African diaspora, and its usage has since expanded.

It wasn’t until the late 1960s that diaspora became a common concept in social sciences. Initially, it was closely tied to Jewish history, especially the forced migration to Babylonia and the later Roman destruction of Jerusalem. This gave the term connotations of displacement and loss of homeland. Despite these associations, the Greek expansion across the Mediterranean during the 6th to 4th centuries BCE also exemplified diaspora in a more voluntary and strategic sense.

While the Jewish and Greek experiences have shaped much of the Western understanding of diaspora, other cases from Asia have added complexity to the concept. In China, for example, the migration of its people has often been seen in a neutral or positive light. A traditional Chinese verse even notes the widespread presence of Chinese people across the seas. Similarly, the cultural influence of South Asians has extended beyond the Indian subcontinent, particularly throughout the Indian Ocean region. Since the 19th century, global movements of labourers seeking work in agriculture or industry have further broadened the notion of diaspora.

Scholars have identified various kinds of diasporas based on the circumstances of migration. These include victim diasporas (resulting from forced displacement), colonial or imperial diasporas (linked to expansionism), trade diasporas (formed through commercial migration), and labour diasporas (emerging from job-seeking migrations). Other classifications emphasise historical and political contexts, distinguishing between traditional diasporas like the Jewish or Greek ones and those without a recognised state, such as the Palestinian or Roma populations. Large-scale migrations since the 19th century have given rise to multiple diasporic groups, many of which became more visible toward the end of the 20th century, forming enduring communities worldwide.

The Indian diaspora is currently the largest in the world, with about 17.5 million people living abroad, followed by the Mexican and Chinese diasporas. Diasporas can be formed by various causes such as colonialism, labour migration, or forced displacement, and they often maintain a collective identity despite geographic dispersion.

In social science, diaspora populations are recognised for their shared identity, historical experience, and ongoing connections to their place of origin, even if they are dispersed globally. The concept also includes secondary diasporas, where new diasporic communities emerge from existing ones. 

Here are some prominent examples of diasporas around the world:

Indian diaspora: The largest in the world, with over 15.5 million Indians living abroad as of 2024. Indian communities are present on every continent, reflecting a diverse mix of regions, languages, and cultures.

Mexican diaspora: The second largest globally, with about 12 million Mexicans living outside Mexico, primarily in the United States.

Chinese diaspora: Approximately 10.5 million Chinese live overseas, with significant communities in Southeast Asia, North America, and Australia.

Filipino diaspora: Over 8 million Filipinos work and live abroad, especially in the Middle East, North America, and Europe.

The Government of India does not follow a specific definition, although it attempted to define the term in 2004 as “a generic term to describe the people who migrated from territories that are currently within the borders of the Republic of India. It also refers to their descendants.”[ix] Today, ‘diaspora’ is commonly understood to include Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) and Overseas Citizens of India (OCI), of which PIO and OCI cardholders were merged under one category — OCI — in 2015. Broadly speaking, for the Indian government, the diaspora encompasses a group of people who can either trace their origins to India or who are Indian citizens living abroad, either temporarily or permanently.

Over the past two decades, India's diaspora has experienced remarkable growth in both size and global influence. In 2000, there were about 7.9 million Indians living abroad. By 2020, this number had more than doubled to approximately 17.9 million, making India the country with the largest diaspora population in the world. As of 2024, estimates suggest the Indian diaspora stands at around 18 million people, with major communities in the United Arab Emirates, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and several other countries.

Geographic Expansion: Traditional destinations like the Gulf countries, the US, and the UK have been joined by newer hubs such as Australia, New Zealand, and Germany, reflecting both skilled and unskilled migration patterns.

Economic Impact: Remittances from the diaspora have surged, reaching a record $129.1 billion in 2024, accounting for 14.3% of global remittances and 3.3% of India’s GDP. The diaspora is also investing in real estate, stock markets, and startups, both abroad and in India.

Changing Profile: The diaspora now includes a significant number of highly skilled professionals, entrepreneurs, and academics, especially in sectors like IT, healthcare, and finance. Indian-origin leaders now head major global companies and play influential roles in politics and policymaking in their host countries.

Government Engagement: India has actively engaged its diaspora through outreach programs, eased investment norms, and initiatives like the Know India Program, aiming to harness their knowledge, investments, and philanthropic contributions for national development.

Cultural and Soft Power: The diaspora has enhanced India’s global presence, promoting its culture, festivals, cuisine, and traditions, and strengthening bilateral relations with key countries.

The Indian diaspora is the largest in the world, with a presence in over 110 countries and a population that has grown significantly in recent decades. As of January 2024, the Indian diaspora numbered approximately 35.42 million people, comprising 15.85 million Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and 19.57 million Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs and Overseas Citizens of India, OCIs). Every year, about 2.5 million Indians emigrate overseas, reflecting both the scale and dynamism of this global community.

Indians have established significant communities across the globe. The top countries with the largest Indian populations in 2025 include:

Country Indian Population (2025)

United States 5,409,062

United Arab Emirates 3,568,848

Malaysia         2,914,127

Canada         2,875,954

Saudi Arabia 2,463,509

United Kingdom 1,764,000

South Africa 1,560,000

Mauritius 894,500

Myanmar 2,009,207

Singapore 650,000

Indians also form a significant percentage of the population in several Gulf countries, such as Qatar (30.5%), UAE (27%), Bahrain (19%), Oman (18%), and Kuwait (17.5%).

The Indian diaspora’s origins can be traced to several waves of migration:

Colonial-era indentured labour: In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Indians were sent as indentured labourers to British, French, and Dutch colonies in the Caribbean, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific. Examples include Indian communities in Trinidad and Tobago, Mauritius, Fiji, and South Africa.

Post-independence migration: After 1947, skilled professionals and students began migrating to the US, UK, Canada, Australia, and the Middle East, often seeking better economic and educational opportunities.

Contemporary migration: Recent decades have seen a surge in both skilled and unskilled migration, especially to the Gulf states, North America, and Europe.

The Indian diaspora has produced prominent figures across various fields:

Navanethem Pillay: South African of Indian origin, former U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights.

Sir Ben Kingsley: British actor of Indian descent, Oscar winner.

Sri Prakash Lohia: Indonesian-Indian industrialist, founder of Indorama Corporation.

Freddie Mercury: British singer and songwriter, lead vocalist of Queen, born Farrokh Bulsara in Zanzibar to Parsi Indian parents.

Madhur Jaffrey: Indian-born British actress, food and travel writer, and television personality.

India actively engages with its diaspora through policies and programs such as:

Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI): Provides certain privileges to people of Indian origin living abroad.

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas: An annual event celebrating the contributions of the Indian diaspora.

Remittance facilitation and investment opportunities: Easing investment norms and encouraging diaspora contributions to national development.

Remittances from the Indian diaspora play a transformative role in India’s development, influencing economic stability, social welfare, and regional growth. Below is a detailed analysis of their multifaceted impact:

Foreign Exchange Reserves: Remittances are India’s largest source of foreign exchange, surpassing FDI and official aid. In 2024, they reached $129 billion, accounting for 14.3% of global remittances and 3.3–3.4% of India’s GDP. This inflow stabilises the rupee, funds current account deficits, and reduces reliance on external borrowing.

Investment in Financial Markets: A growing share of remittances is channelled into equities, mutual funds, and NRI deposit schemes. For example, NRI deposits doubled to $10 billion between April and September 2024, reflecting confidence in India’s growth trajectory.

2. Household Welfare and Poverty Reduction

Direct Support to Families: Remittances fund essentials like healthcare, education, and housing for millions of households. In Kerala, remittances constitute 20% of the state’s GDP, lifting families out of poverty and improving living standards.

Entrepreneurship and Asset Creation: Funds are used to start small businesses, purchase land, or invest in agriculture. For instance, Punjab and Gujarat have seen remittance-driven growth in agro-industries and real estate.

Kerala’s Dual Reality: While remittances (30% of GDP in 2023) boosted consumption, they also led to record youth unemployment (third-highest nationally) due to a lack of local industries and over-reliance on Gulf migrants.

Urban-Rural Divide: Remittances often flow to rural areas, reducing urban migration pressure. However, this can also inflate land prices and create economic disparities.

Healthcare and Education: Remittances fund private schooling and medical treatments, reducing pressure on public systems. Families in states like Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh prioritise education, leading to higher literacy rates.

Philanthropy and Infrastructure: Diaspora contributions support temples, schools, and hospitals. For example, the Punjab NRI Sabha has funded over 500 rural healthcare centres.

Source Diversification: Remittances from advanced economies (US, UK, Canada) now exceed those from Gulf nations. High-skilled migrants in these regions send larger sums, averaging $1,200–1,500 monthly.

Brain Drain Concerns: Over 1.8 million Indian students studied abroad in 2024, raising fears of talent loss. However, their remittances and eventual return with global expertise offer long-term benefits.

Government Initiatives: Tax incentives, NRE accounts, and double-taxation treaties encourage remittance flows. Programs like Pravasi Bharatiya Divas strengthen diaspora ties.

Climate Resilience: The World Bank projects remittances will grow further due to climate-induced migration, offering a buffer for vulnerable regions.

Remittances are a double-edged sword: They fuel consumption, reduce poverty, and stabilise the economy, but can also discourage industrial growth in remittance-dependent states. Balancing these inflows with policies that incentivise productive investments, rather than mere consumption, will be critical for sustainable development. With remittances projected to rise, their role as India’s economic lifeline is set to expand further.

The Indian diaspora, estimated at over 18 million people globally, has significantly shaped the population composition of several host countries, both in terms of numbers and demographic diversity.

In some countries, Indians form a substantial proportion of the total population, particularly in the Gulf and Southeast Asia:

Qatar: Indians constitute about 30.5% of the total population, making them the largest expatriate group in the country.

United Arab Emirates (UAE): Indians account for approximately 27% of the population, with around 3.6 million residents of Indian origin.

Bahrain: About 19% of the population is of Indian origin.

Oman: Indians make up 18% of the population.

Kuwait: Indians represent roughly 17.5% of the population.

These large proportions have transformed the demographic landscape, especially in countries with smaller native populations, leading to a multicultural and multilingual society.

While the percentage is lower, the absolute numbers are significant in Western countries:

United States: With an estimated 5.4 million people of Indian origin, Indian-Americans are one of the fastest-growing ethnic groups, especially in urban centers like New York, San Francisco, and Chicago.

Canada: The Indian diaspora numbers around 2.8 million, making up a notable share of the population, particularly in cities like Toronto and Vancouver.

United Kingdom: The Indian-origin population is about 1.8 million, forming one of the largest ethnic minority groups in the country.

The Indian diaspora is not homogeneous. It includes Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs), with a wide range of linguistic, religious, and regional backgrounds. This diversity enriches the social fabric of host countries and often leads to the establishment of vibrant Indian neighbourhoods, cultural centres, and religious institutions.

The demographic presence of Indians has also translated into economic and social influence. In countries like the US and UK, Indian-origin individuals are prominent in sectors such as healthcare, IT, academia, and business. In the Gulf, Indian workers are vital to construction, services, and healthcare.

5. Examples of Population Impact

Country Indian Diaspora Population Percentage of Total Population

Qatar ~800,000 30.5%

UAE ~3,600,000 27%

Bahrain ~300,000     19%

Oman ~800,000 18%

Kuwait ~1,000,000 17.5%

United States ~5,400,000 ~1.6%

Canada ~2,800,000 ~7.5%

United Kingdom ~1,800,000 ~2.7%

Malaysia ~2,900,000 ~9%

The Indian diaspora is a powerful force in shaping and enriching the cultural diversity of host countries across the globe. Their influence is visible through several key avenues:

Indian communities actively preserve and share their traditions, languages, dances (like Bharatanatyam and Kathak), music (Carnatic and Hindustani), and diverse cuisines. This is achieved through language schools, cultural events, religious practices, and artistic performances.

Major Indian festivals such as Diwali, Holi, and Navratri are celebrated with enthusiasm in countries like the US, UK, Canada, Australia, and the Gulf, often involving local populations and fostering cross-cultural understanding.

Indian cuisine has become a mainstream part of the culinary landscape in many countries, with Indian restaurants and food festivals introducing local communities to Indian flavors and cooking styles.

The diaspora not only preserves Indian traditions but also adapts and fuses them with local cultures, resulting in unique cultural blends such as Indo-Caribbean cuisine and hybrid music and dance forms.

The spread of yoga, meditation, and Ayurveda practices rooted in Indian heritage has had a profound impact on global wellness and lifestyle trends, largely due to the efforts of the diaspora.

Indian-origin writers, filmmakers, and artists contribute to global literature and media, exploring themes of identity, migration, and cultural negotiation. Notable examples include authors like Salman Rushdie and Jhumpa Lahiri, whose works bridge Indian and Western experiences.

Indian cinema, music, and television have gained international audiences, further enhancing cultural exchange and appreciation.

The diaspora establishes cultural centres, temples, and community organisations that serve as hubs for both Indians and locals, promoting intercultural dialogue and social cohesion.

Through educational initiatives, scholarships, and institutional support, the diaspora also contributes to academic and professional excellence in host countries.

Members of the Indian diaspora often serve as informal cultural ambassadors, fostering greater understanding and cooperation between India and their host countries. Their presence helps build bridges, resolve misunderstandings, and promote multiculturalism.

The Indian diaspora’s efforts in preserving, adapting, and sharing their heritage have made Indian culture a vibrant and integral part of the social fabric in many countries. Their festivals, food, arts, and values not only celebrate India’s diversity but also enhance the multicultural character of their host societies, promoting mutual respect and global understanding.

Links: 

https://www.orfonline.org/research/the-diaspora-and-india-s-growth-story

https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/rise-of-indian-diaspora-3159307#google_vignette 

https://www.america-times.com/the-indian-diaspora-past-present-and-future/

Labour migration is a significant and dynamic phenomenon involving millions of workers moving from one state to another, primarily in search of employment and better economic opportunities. Inter-state labour migration involves over 40 million workers moving primarily from less developed states to more industrialised ones, driven chiefly by the search for better employment and income opportunities amid socio-economic disparities across regions.

Extent of Inter-State Labour Migration in India

●             According to Census 2011 data, the total number of inter-state migrant workers in India was approximately 41.4 million (4,14,22,917 persons).

●             Inter-state migration accounts for about 12% of total migration in India, while intra-state migration constitutes about 88%.

●             The migration streams show that states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh are major sources of out-migration, with millions moving to economically developed states such as Maharashtra, Delhi, and Gujarat.

●             The migration is mostly from economically underdeveloped states to more industrialised and urbanised states, reflecting a pattern of labour movement towards areas with better job prospects.

●             Certain states like Tamil Nadu have a large inflow of inter-state migrant labour, especially in industrial and urban centres such as Tirupur, Coimbatore, and Chennai.

Inter-State Scenario

This migration network highlights the predominant labour movement from economically underdeveloped states in the north and east to industrialised and urbanised states in the west and south, driven largely by employment opportunities in manufacturing, construction, services, and informal sectors.

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal are the primary source states with the highest number of inter-state migrant workers, while Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are the leading destination states attracting the largest inflows of migrant labour in India

States with the Highest Number of Inter-State Migrant Workers (Origin States)

●             Uttar Pradesh: The largest source state, with about 31.56 million inter-state migrant workers moving out for employment and other reasons.

●             Bihar: Another major source, contributing around 7.06 million migrant workers to other states.

●             Rajasthan: Significant out-migration with about 1.71 million inter-state migrants.

●             Madhya Pradesh: Also a key origin state, with approximately 2.42 million migrant workers leaving the state.

●             West Bengal: Noted for a large number of migrants, with about 1.65 million workers migrating to other states.

●             Odisha: Around 0.85 million migrants originate from here.

●             Jharkhand: About 0.82 million migrants.

●             Assam and Manipur: Smaller but notable contributors to inter-state migration.

These states are generally less economically developed and have higher poverty levels, which push workers to migrate in search of better employment opportunities.

States with the Highest Number of Inter-State Migrant Workers (Destination States)

●             Maharashtra: The top destination state, receiving about 7.9 million inter-state migrant workers, including a large influx from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

●             Delhi (NCT of Delhi): Receives about 2.03 million migrant workers, primarily from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

●             Gujarat: Attracts over 3 million migrant workers.

●             Karnataka: Receives around 2.88 million migrants.

●             Tamil Nadu: Another major destination with about 3.48 million migrant workers.

●             Kerala: Attracts over 0.7 million migrants, often from north-eastern and eastern states.

Key Migration Flows (State-to-State)

●             Uttar Pradesh → Maharashtra: The largest inter-state labour migration corridor, accounting for over 5.7% of migrants moving for job-related reasons.

●             Uttar Pradesh → Delhi: Another major flow, with more than 4% of migrants moving for employment.

●             Bihar → Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu: Bihar migrants move predominantly to these economically advanced states.

●             Rajasthan → Maharashtra, Gujarat, Delhi: Rajasthan migrants also follow similar patterns.

●             West Bengal → Maharashtra, Delhi, Tamil Nadu: Migrants from West Bengal move to these states for work.

●             Jharkhand and Odisha → Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu: These eastern states contribute to migrant labour in western and southern states.

Regional Patterns

●             Migration is largely from northern and eastern states (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, and Rajasthan) to western and southern states (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Delhi).

●             The flows are mostly driven by economic disparities, with migrants moving from rural and less developed regions to urban and industrial hubs.

●             Migration distances vary, but many migrants move to neighbouring or nearby states, though some travel longer distances for better opportunities.

Summary Map of Flows (Conceptual)

Key Migration Patterns

●             The largest migration flow is from Uttar Pradesh to Maharashtra, accounting for over 5.7% of migrants moving for job-related purposes between 2020 and 2021.

●             Uttar Pradesh to Delhi migration is also significant, with over 4% moving for employment.

●             The major origin states are generally in the north and east, while the major destination states are in the west and south, reflecting economic disparities and industrial concentration.

The states in India that are the highest receivers of migrant labour and those that are net suppliers (net out-migrants) are well-documented based on Census 2011 and subsequent government data.

Additional Notes

●             Uttar Pradesh and Bihar alone account for about half of the total inter-state out-migrants in India.

●             Maharashtra and Delhi together attract the largest share of migrants due to their industrial growth and urban job opportunities.

●             Other states like Gujarat and Tamil Nadu attract migrants even from distant states, reflecting their economic magnetism.

●             The government’s Garib Kalyan Rozgar Abhiyan targeted employment generation in high out-migration states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and Odisha to reduce distress migration

Prime Reasons for Labour Migration

A combination of push and pull factors drives labour migration in India:

Push Factors (Reasons compelling people to leave their native places)

●     Lack of suitable employment opportunities or underemployment in the home state.

●     Poverty, inequality, and high population density in source states.

●     Seasonal unemployment due to agricultural cycles and low agricultural productivity.

●     Social factors such as landlessness, lower caste status, and economic disadvantages that limit local livelihood options.

●     Poor living conditions and lack of social infrastructure in rural areas.

Pull Factors (Attractions to destination states)

●     Availability of better and more consistent employment opportunities in destination states.

●     Higher wages and better income prospects compared to home states.

●     Industrial growth and urbanization in certain states creating demand for labour in construction, manufacturing, and services sectors.

●     Migration for education and business opportunities, though these are smaller components compared to employment-driven migration.

Additional Observations

●     Employment-related reasons constitute around 25% of inter-state migration, with a higher proportion among males (46%) compared to females (6%).

●     Marriage and moving with households also contribute significantly to migration, especially among females.

●     Migration is often a survival strategy for poor and marginalised communities, sometimes resulting in cyclical or seasonal migration patterns.

●     Reverse migration has been observed during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the vulnerabilities of migrant workers in destination states.

Socio-economic factors play a crucial role in shaping the patterns and volume of inter-state migration in India. These factors influence both the decision to migrate and the choice of destination, reflecting disparities in development, employment opportunities, and social conditions across states.

Socio-economic factors influence inter-state migration in India through a complex interplay of regional economic disparities, employment opportunities, social development, and urbanization. Migration flows predominantly move from poorer, less developed states to richer, more urbanized states, driven by the search for better livelihoods and living conditions. Social factors such as education and marriage also play important roles, while the vulnerabilities faced by migrants in destination states underscore the need for inclusive policies

1. Regional Economic Disparities and Development Levels

●             Migration is strongly linked to regional disparities in economic development. People tend to move from less developed, poorer states with limited employment opportunities to more economically advanced states with better job prospects, especially in urban and industrial centers1.

●             States with higher economic growth, urbanization, and industrialization such as Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab attract large numbers of migrants from poorer states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha12.

●             The availability of jobs in secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary (service) sectors in destination states acts as a pull factor, while underdevelopment, poverty, and lack of employment in source states act as push factors12.

2. Income and Employment Opportunities

●             Low wages, unemployment, and underemployment in rural and agricultural areas push workers to migrate to states offering higher wages and more stable employment, often in construction, manufacturing, and services15.

●             Economic growth driven by service sector expansion also influences migration by creating new livelihood opportunities that attract migrants2.

●             Migration is often a survival strategy for economically marginalized populations who seek to improve their income and living standards15.

3. Social Factors and Human Capital

●             Social development indicators such as education, health, and welfare policies influence migration patterns. Higher social expenditure and better education levels in some states can lead to increased out-migration as families invest in education and skills, enabling young people to seek jobs elsewhere2.

●             Marriage is a significant social reason for migration, especially among females, contributing to intra- and inter-state migration34.

●             Social inequalities, caste-based disadvantages, and landlessness in source states also compel migration as people seek better social and economic opportunities elsewhere1.

4. Urbanization and Infrastructure

●             Urban centres, administrative headquarters, and business hubs attract migrants due to better infrastructure, services, and employment opportunities1.

●             States with better road connectivity and irrigation facilities can influence migration patterns by improving agricultural productivity and incomes, which may either reduce or enable migration depending on the context2.

5. Vulnerability and Living Conditions

●             Migrants often face poor living conditions, low wages (sometimes about 70% of local wages), long working hours, and inadequate sanitation in destination states, which can affect their decisions to migrate or return home (reverse migration)5.

●             The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the vulnerabilities of migrant workers, highlighting the socio-economic challenges they face in destination states2.

The main industries attracting migrant workers to Maharashtra and Delhi reflect the economic structure and demand for labour in these states, particularly in sectors requiring both skilled and unskilled workers.

Maharashtra: Key Industries Attracting Migrant Workers

●             Automobile and Auto Components: Maharashtra is a major automobile manufacturing hub with factories of Tata Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, Bajaj Auto, and a thriving auto parts industry. This sector offers numerous jobs for skilled and semi-skilled workers1.

●             Pharmaceuticals and Chemicals: Mumbai and other parts of Maharashtra are important centres for pharmaceutical and chemical industries, providing employment opportunities in manufacturing and related activities1.

●             Textiles and Apparel: The state has a historic and large textile industry, especially in Mumbai and surrounding areas, producing cotton and synthetic fabrics that employ many migrant workers16.

●             Engineering and Electronics: Maharashtra hosts numerous engineering firms producing heavy equipment and electronic apparatus, which attract skilled labourers1.

●             Construction: A significant share of migrants in Maharashtra work in the construction sector, including infrastructure development, housing, and urban projects23.

●             Other sectors: Metal and woodwork, handicrafts, and personal services also employ migrant workers in Maharashtra2.

Delhi: Main Industries Employing Migrant Workers

●             Construction: The largest employer of migrant labour in Delhi, involving masons, labourers, painters, plumbers, and other skilled and unskilled workers engaged in building infrastructure and housing45.

●             Domestic Work and Household Services: A substantial proportion of migrants, especially women, work as domestic helpers, cooks, cleaners, and caretakers in private households45.

●             Manufacturing and Small-Scale Industries: Migrants are engaged in manufacturing activities, including garments, handicrafts, and small workshops4.

●             Trade, Retail, and Services: Many migrants work in retail shops, food joints, hospitality, and other service sectors that support the urban economy45.

●             Security and Maintenance: Jobs such as watchmen, security guards, gardeners, and cleaners employ a significant number of migrants4.

●             Other skilled trades: Craftsmen including motor mechanics, carpenters, electricians, welders, tailors, and plumbers form a notable segment of migrant workers in Delhi4.

Inter-state migrant workers in India face a wide range of challenges rooted in their socio-economic vulnerabilities, legal status, and living and working conditions. These challenges affect their dignity, security, health, and ability to integrate socially and economically in destination states.

Main Challenges Faced by Inter-State Migrant Workers in India

1. Lack of Job Security and Exploitation

●             Most migrant workers are employed in the informal and unorganized sectors, often through contractors or middlemen, with no formal contracts or job security.

●             They face low wages, delayed or withheld payments, forced long working hours, and unsafe working conditions.

●             Exploitation by labour contractors is common, who charge high fees and impose harsh terms, trapping workers in precarious jobs27.

2. Social Exclusion and Language Barriers

●             Migrants often face discrimination and social exclusion due to differences in language, culture, ethnicity, and regional identity.

●             Language barriers hinder communication with employers, local authorities, and access to government services, sometimes leading to suspicion, harassment, or wrongful detention by police16.

●             Difficulty in social integration leads to isolation and vulnerability.

3. Lack of Legal Protection and Access to Rights

●             Migrant workers frequently lack awareness of their legal rights and have limited access to justice when rights are violated.

●             Many are not covered adequately by labour laws or social security schemes due to the informal nature of their employment and lack of documentation.

●             The absence of a centralized registry or data on migrants complicates policy implementation and welfare delivery25.

4. Inadequate and Poor Living Conditions

●             Migrants often live in overcrowded, unhygienic, and unsafe housing arrangements, such as construction site sheds or slums, with limited access to sanitation and clean water.

●             Such conditions increase their vulnerability to diseases and health hazards, as starkly highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic258.

5. Challenges in Accessing Education and Health Services

●             Migrant children face difficulties enrolling and continuing education due to language differences, frequent relocations, and discrimination, leading to high dropout rates.

●             Migrants have poor access to healthcare and social welfare services in destination states, partly due to lack of local identity proofs and portability of benefits27.

6. Identity, Documentation, and Portability Issues

●             Many migrants lack verifiable identity documents such as voter ID or ration cards, making them vulnerable to harassment and exclusion from public services.

●             Portability of social security benefits like the Public Distribution System (PDS) is limited, though schemes like ‘One Nation, One Ration Card’ aim to address this.

●             The lack of political inclusion, such as inability to vote in destination states, further marginalizes migrants5.

7. Financial Vulnerability

●             Migrants often survive on meagre earnings and send remittances home, but lack access to formal financial services and government assistance.

●             Many are not enumerated in government databases, limiting their access to direct benefit transfers and welfare schemes5.

8. Psychological and Cultural Challenges

●             Migrants face alienation due to cultural differences, regionalism, and xenophobia in host states.

●             They experience stress, insecurity, and social isolation, which affect their mental well-being.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a massive and sudden reverse migration from urban to rural areas in India, disrupting traditional inter-state labour flows. Post-pandemic, migration patterns have evolved with increased emphasis on family proximity, lifestyle, and remote work possibilities, alongside a gradual resumption of employment-driven migration. These changes have lasting implications for urban-rural demographics, labour markets, and policy frameworks addressing migrant welfare and mobility.

Changes in Inter-State Migration Patterns Due to COVID-19

1. Large-Scale Reverse Migration

●             The nationwide lockdown in March 2020 led to sudden job losses and closure of industries in urban centers, forcing millions of migrant workers to return to their native rural areas.

●             This reverse migration was unprecedented in scale, with about 87% of migrants returning to their home states during the first and second lockdowns, disrupting the usual rural-to-urban migration flow2467.

●             Migrants faced hardships such as lack of transport, food, shelter, and health facilities during this exodus.

2. Disruption of Mobility and Employment

●             COVID-related restrictions severely limited the mobility of migrants, halting regular migration flows and stranding many workers outside their home or work states.

●             Many industries dependent on migrant labour, such as construction, manufacturing, and services, faced labour shortages after the reverse migration.

●             Migrants lost access to social security and welfare benefits in destination states due to their mobility and lack of documentation278.

3. Shift in Migration Motivations and Patterns Post-Pandemic

●             While rural-to-urban migration has resumed post-lockdown, the pandemic has influenced migrants' reasons for moving.

●             There is a growing trend of migration motivated by family proximity, lifestyle choices, and the ability to work remotely rather than solely for employment35.

●             Remote work capabilities have allowed some migrants, especially those in higher-income and remote-work-capable occupations, to relocate to suburban or rural areas without changing jobs, reducing the necessity to live in urban cores5.

4. Persistence of Pandemic-Influenced Migration Decisions

●             Even after the easing of restrictions and vaccine availability, pandemic-related factors continue to influence migration decisions.

●             Around 9-15% of movers report that the pandemic influenced their decision to move, with family reasons, remote work, and job loss being the top cited factors5.

5. Impact on Urban-Rural Dynamics and Local Economies

●             The "donut effect" has been observed, where population declines in urban cores are accompanied by increases in suburban and rural areas.

●             These shifts affect local economies, with areas experiencing migration inflows showing higher post-pandemic economic growth indicators such as employment and income5.

6. Health and Policy Implications

●             Reverse migration contributed to the spread of COVID-19 in rural areas, complicating containment efforts6.

●             The crisis exposed the vulnerabilities of migrant workers, highlighting the need for better social protection, data systems, and coordinated policy responses to manage migration flows and welfare.

The problem of inter-state labour migration in India is multifaceted, involving socio-economic, cultural, legal, and policy-related challenges that affect millions of migrant workers who move across state boundaries in search of better livelihood opportunities.

The problem of inter-state labour migration in India can be addressed through a combination of policy measures, welfare schemes, skill development, and institutional coordination aimed at reducing distress migration and improving migrant workers’ conditions. The probable solutions include:

1. Skill Development and Job Creation in Source Areas

●             Investing in rural skill development initiatives to enhance employability and create local job opportunities can reduce the compulsion to migrate for work.

●             Schemes like Skill India Mission and Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) empower workers with certified skills, increasing their chances of local employment or better wages if they migrate.

●             Developing agro-industrial hubs, rural livelihood zones, and promoting self-help groups under schemes like MGNREGA and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana (DAY-NRLM) can generate sustainable employment in source regions, reducing distress migration145.

2. Development of Counter-Magnet Cities and Balanced Regional Growth

●             Promoting regional cities as economic and social hubs by improving infrastructure, affordable housing, healthcare, education, and employment opportunities can disperse population growth and reduce pressure on major urban centres.

●             This balanced regional development encourages migrants to move to closer, smaller cities rather than distant metros, easing migration burdens and urban congestion1.

3. Strengthening Social Security and Welfare Portability

●             Implementation and expansion of schemes like One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC) ensure food security for migrants across states.

●             Developing a nationwide platform for portability of social security benefits such as EPF, ESIC, health insurance (e.g., PMJAY), and linking these with migrant databases like the e-Shram Portal can ensure seamless access to entitlements regardless of location47.

4. Affordable Housing and Livelihood Clusters

●             Creating affordable rental housing complexes (ARHC) near industrial and urban hubs integrated with livelihood clusters can improve living conditions and reduce travel costs for migrants.

●             Linking housing schemes with urban development missions (e.g., Smart Cities Mission) and employment programs (e.g., Make in India) can provide better quality of life and job proximity4.

5. Institutional Coordination and Policy Harmonization

●             Encouraging state governments to harmonize labour laws and welfare policies through a national framework can improve coordination between source and destination states.

●             Revamping the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act (1979) and establishing State Coordination Cells and District Facilitation Centres can enhance tracking, grievance redressal, and welfare delivery.

●             MoUs between states to protect migrant rights and facilitate safe migration are essential345.

6. Digitization and Data-Driven Interventions

●             Developing migrant-friendly mobile applications and digital platforms for registration, grievance redressal, and welfare delivery can improve transparency and accessibility.

●             Computerizing migrant data at the grassroots level helps in tracking movements and linking workers to government schemes345.

7. Gender-Sensitive Policies and Safety Measures

●             Designing targeted interventions for female migrants including workplace safety, wage parity, childcare facilities (e.g., integrating Anganwadi services), and health care access can improve female labour participation and welfare4.

8. Healthcare Inclusion and Occupational Safety

●             Introducing mobile health clinics, occupational health programs, and linking health insurance schemes with employers can reduce health risks and improve productivity among migrant workers.

●             Preventive care and workplace safety measures are crucial in hazardous sectors like construction and mining46.

Skill development programs can effectively reduce inter-state migration in India by enhancing the employability of workers in their home regions, thereby addressing the primary push factors of migration—lack of local employment and low incomes. Here’s how skill development contributes to reducing migration:

1. Creating Local Employment Opportunities

●             By equipping workers with relevant vocational and technical skills aligned to local and regional economic needs, skill development programs enable them to find gainful employment within their home states or nearby areas, reducing the compulsion to migrate to distant states for work12.

●             Developing skills in sectors with growth potential in source regions (e.g., agro-processing, small-scale industries, rural enterprises) helps generate sustainable livelihoods locally.

2. Enhancing Labour Market Matching and Mobility

●             Skill development aligned with labour market demands improves the quality and productivity of the workforce, making workers more competitive and employable in local industries and services34.

●             When combined with skills recognition and certification, workers can access better jobs and wages without needing to migrate far, or they can migrate with better prospects and protections if they choose.

3. Reducing Forced or Distress Migration

●             Many migrants move due to distress caused by unemployment or underemployment. Skill training provides alternative livelihood options and income-generating activities, reducing forced migration driven by poverty and lack of opportunities1.

●             Skill development also helps diversify income sources, including self-employment and entrepreneurship, which can stabilise rural economies.

4. Facilitating Circular and Temporary Migration

●             Well-designed skill programs enable workers to engage in circular migration—moving temporarily for work while maintaining strong ties to their home communities—thus reducing permanent out-migration and its social costs3.

●             This flexibility supports both the needs of destination labour markets and the welfare of migrants.

5. Promoting Partnerships and Multi-Stakeholder Involvement

●             International and inter-state skill mobility partnerships involving governments, private sector, and civil society ensure training is demand-driven and sustainable, increasing the chances that trained workers find suitable employment locally or in nearby regions35.

●             Such partnerships can also facilitate knowledge exchange and improve training quality.

6. Supporting Women and Vulnerable Groups

●             Targeted skill development for women and marginalized groups enhances their participation in local economies, reducing migration driven by lack of opportunities and social exclusion7.

●             Empowering these groups locally improves community resilience and reduces migration pressures.

1. Increasing Social Expenditure and Welfare Support

●             Higher social expenditure on health, education, nutrition, and social security improves the welfare of dependent populations (children, elderly, women), which can reduce the economic pressure on working-age members to migrate for livelihood2.

●             Investments in irrigation and agriculture productivity raise rural incomes, enabling families to sustain themselves locally and invest in human capital, thereby reducing distress migration2.

2. Enhancing Access to Basic Services and Infrastructure

●             Improving rural infrastructure such as roads, schools, healthcare facilities, and sanitation raises quality of life and employment opportunities, making staying in home states more viable.

●             States like Kerala have implemented migrant-friendly policies including alternative identity cards and access to education and healthcare, which support both migrants and their families, reducing forced migration3.

3. Providing Affordable Housing and Livelihood Support

●             Schemes that provide affordable housing and support for local livelihoods (e.g., self-help groups, rural employment programs like MGNREGA) help stabilize dependent populations and reduce the need for family members to migrate for work3.

4. Facilitating Portability of Welfare Benefits

●             Ensuring portability of social security and welfare benefits such as ration cards, health insurance, and pensions across states reduces the vulnerability of migrants and their families, encouraging them to maintain ties with their home states rather than permanently relocating13.

5. Fiscal Transfers and Developmental Policies

●             Progressive fiscal transfers from the central government to less-developed states can reduce regional disparities by funding social welfare and development projects, thus lowering the push factors for migration68.

●             Developmental fiscal policies focused on local job creation and social protection can reduce the pressure on working populations to migrate.

6. Policy Coordination and Inclusive Governance

●             States need to harmonize policies to protect migrant rights and welfare, including political inclusion and non-discriminatory access to housing and services, to reduce social exclusion and economic insecurity of dependent populations3.

●             Establishing institutional mechanisms for migrant welfare and grievance redressal can also improve conditions for dependents.

Scenario of Labour Migration in West Bengal

West Bengal has historically been both a source and destination of migrant labour, but with a rising trend of out-migration driven mainly by employment needs. The state ranks high among Indian states for outbound labour migration, with major flows directed towards Maharashtra, Delhi, and other industrialised states. Migration patterns have shifted over time from family and marriage-related moves to predominantly employment-driven migration, especially among males. Despite some in-migration, West Bengal remains a net supplier of migrant labour, reflecting ongoing regional economic challenges.

The labour migration scenario of West Bengal has evolved over time, reflecting changing socio-economic dynamics and regional development patterns.

Past Scenario of Labour Migration in West Bengal

●     According to Census data, the total number of migrants in West Bengal increased from about 17.87 million in 1991 to 25.1 million in 2001, and further to 33.45 million by 2011, indicating a steady rise in migration over two decades1.

●     Historically, migration in West Bengal involved both intra-state and inter-state flows, with a significant share moving with family members, especially females, where marriage and family relocation were dominant reasons.

●     In 1991, for males, employment was the third most important reason for migration, but by 2001 it became the foremost reason, reflecting a shift towards economic-driven migration2.

●     Natural calamities also contributed to migration, alongside family reasons and marriage.

●     Out-migration for employment was significant, with West Bengal ranking fourth among Indian states for outbound migration for work between 2001 and 2011, after Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan3.

Present Scenario of Labour Out-Migration and In-Migration

●     By 2011, about 5.8 lakh people migrated out of West Bengal seeking employment, with migration occurring almost equally from rural and urban areas3.

●     Major destinations for migrant workers from West Bengal include Maharashtra and Delhi, which attract nearly 45.3% and 34% respectively of Bengal’s outbound migrants for work. Other important destinations are Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh3.

●     The outbound migration is largely among unskilled labourers from various districts of West Bengal, indicating economic push factors such as lack of local employment opportunities.

●     In terms of in-migration, West Bengal also attracts migrants from other states, though in smaller numbers compared to its out-migration. The state’s industrial and urban centres draw workers, but the net migration balance is negative due to higher outflows1.

●     Migration reasons have diversified with employment becoming a dominant factor for males, while females primarily migrate due to family reasons and marriage2.

How has the trend of labour out-migration in West Bengal changed over the past decade?

Over the past decade, the trend of labour out-migration in West Bengal has shifted notably, reflecting both an increase in the volume of migrants and a reversal in the state’s migration balance.

Key Changes in Labour Out-Migration from West Bengal

1. Rising Volume of Migrants

●     The total number of migrants in West Bengal rose significantly, reaching 33.45 million (3.34 crore) by the 2011 Census, up from 25.1 million in 2001 and 17.87 million in 199112.

●     Of these, 2.41 million (24.1 lakh) were classified as out-migrants—people who left West Bengal for other states—according to the 2011 Census2.

2. Shift from Net In-Migration to Net Out-Migration

●     Historically, West Bengal received more migrants than it sent out. In 1991 and 2001, the state had a surplus of in-migrants (86,500 in 1991 and 76,900 in 2001)2.

●     By 2011, this trend reversed: West Bengal experienced a net migration loss, with more people leaving the state than arriving, resulting in a net out-migration of about 25,0002.

●     This marks a significant change, positioning West Bengal as a net supplier of labour to other states in the last decade.

3. Employment-Driven Out-Migration

●     West Bengal now ranks fourth among Indian states in terms of outbound migration for employment, after Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan3.

●     The majority of out-migrants are unskilled or semi-skilled labourers seeking better work opportunities in states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu3.

●     The shift towards employment-driven migration is particularly pronounced among males, while family and marriage remain key reasons for female migration2.

4. Spatial Patterns

●     Out-migration is observed from both rural and urban areas of West Bengal, indicating widespread economic push factors2.

●     Certain districts, such as North 24 Parganas, have higher migration rates, while others like Maldah and Purulia have lower rates of inter-state out-migration2.

 

What are the main reasons behind labour in-migration in West Bengal?

The main reasons behind labour in-migration to West Bengal are shaped by the state’s unique socio-economic and demographic dynamics, as well as its historical and regional context.

Main Reasons for Labour In-Migration in West Bengal

1. Economic Opportunities and Wage Differentials

●     Urban and Industrial Growth: West Bengal, particularly Kolkata and other urban centres, has long been a hub for trade, services, and industry, attracting migrants seeking jobs in construction, manufacturing, transport, and informal sectors4.

●     Wage Differentials: For certain periods and sectors, wage rates in West Bengal—especially in urban and peri-urban areas—have been higher than those in neighbouring states or regions, making it an attractive destination for unskilled and semi-skilled workers6.

●     Labour Demand in Agriculture: The state’s intensive agriculture, especially in the rice-producing belt, creates seasonal demand for labour, drawing in migrants from less developed districts within West Bengal as well as from neighbouring states64.

2. Proximity and Social Networks

●     Geographical Proximity: Migrants from neighbouring states such as Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha often move to West Bengal due to ease of access, cultural similarities, and established migration corridors4.

●     Existing Social Networks: Established communities of earlier migrants help new arrivals find jobs and accommodation, lowering the barriers to migration and facilitating continuous inflow4.

3. Political and Historical Factors

●     Historical Role as a Migrant-Receiving State: Since the late nineteenth century, West Bengal has been a major recipient of migrants, including refugees and labourers, due to its economic prominence and political stability relative to some neighbouring regions14.

●     Partition and Displacement: Past events like the Partition of Bengal and subsequent political changes have contributed to large-scale in-migration, shaping the state’s demographic profile4.

4. Lack of Opportunities in Source Regions

●     Poverty and Unemployment in Neighbouring States: Migrants from economically weaker regions are pushed to West Bengal due to lack of regular employment, low agricultural productivity, and poor wage rates at home46.

5. Seasonal and Circular Migration

●     Seasonal Labour Demand: During peak agricultural seasons or periods of high construction activity, there is an influx of short-term or circular migrants who return home after the season ends46.

Summary Table: Main Drivers of Labour In-Migration to West Bengal

What impact does labour migration have on the local economy in West Bengal?

Labour migration—both in-migration and out-migration—has had a significant and complex impact on the local economy of West Bengal.

Positive Impacts

●     Filling Labour Gaps in Key Sectors: In-migration, especially from less-developed districts and neighbouring states, helps meet the seasonal and sectoral demand for unskilled and semi-skilled labour in agriculture, construction, and informal industries. For example, migrants from Purulia and Murshidabad move to agriculturally advanced districts like Bardhaman during peak seasons, enabling surplus production and supporting the local economy1.

●     Supporting Informal and Service Sectors: In-migrants are widely employed as contractual labourers in informal and service sectors, contributing to urban growth and the functioning of Kolkata and other cities3.

●     Economic Mobility for Migrants: Migration offers a route out of poverty for many, as migrants can earn higher incomes compared to their home regions. This income is often remitted back, supporting families and local consumption18.

Negative and Mixed Impacts

●     Labour Rights and Vulnerability: While migration brings higher income, it often comes at the cost of job insecurity, lack of formal contracts, and poor working conditions. Migrants in West Bengal, especially those in the informal sector, frequently lack social protection and face exploitation1.

●     Pressure on Local Resources: Large-scale in-migration can strain urban infrastructure, public services, and housing, particularly in Kolkata and other urban centers.

●     Wage and Employment Competition: The influx of migrant labour may increase competition for low-skilled jobs, potentially depressing wages for local workers or creating social tensions during periods of economic stress3.

●     Changing Labour Relations: In agriculture, circular migration patterns can create labour shortages in the migrants' home districts during peak times, sometimes pressuring employers to improve contract terms1.

Broader Socio-Economic Effects

●     Remittance Economy: Out-migration from West Bengal leads to remittance inflows, which improve household welfare, increase local spending, and can contribute to rural development8.

●     Skill Circulation: West Bengal is both a sender of skilled professionals (to other Indian cities and abroad) and a receiver of unskilled labour, reflecting a dual migration pattern that shapes the local workforce and economic structure1.

●     Social and Cultural Change: Migration brings diversity and can foster new skills and entrepreneurial activities, but may also introduce challenges related to integration and social cohesion.

Summary
Labour migration in West Bengal supports economic growth by filling labour shortages and boosting incomes, but also introduces challenges related to worker vulnerability, resource pressure, and labour market competition. The net effect is a dynamic local economy, shaped by both the opportunities and constraints of migration flows.